txbxaxy  of  Che  theological  ^eminarp 

PRINCETON  ■  NEW  JERSEY 


PRESENTED  BY 

The  Author 

777' 

v  -  2-" 


A 

BRIEF  RETROSPECT 

OF    THE 

EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

PART  FIRST; 
IN  TWO  VOLUMES: 

CONTAINING 

A  SKETCH  OF  THE 
REVOLUTIONS  AND  IMPROVEMENTS 

IN 

SCIENCE,  ARTS,  AND  LITERATURE, 

DURING  THAT  PERIOD. 

BY  SAMUEL  MILLER,  A.  M. 

ONE  OF  THE  MINISTERS  OF  THE  UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

IN  THE  CITY  OF  NEW-YORK,    MEMBER    OF  THE    AMERICAN 

PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY,    AND    CORRESPONDING 

MEMBER    OF  THE    HISTORICAL    SOCIETY 

OF    MASSACHUSETTS. 

VOL.  II. 

PUBLISHED  ACCORDING  TO  ACT  OF  CONGRESS. 


NEW-YORK: 


PRINTED  BY  T.  AND  J.  SWORDS, 
NO.  160  PEARL-STREET. 


1803. 


District  of  New-York,  ss. 

Be  IT  REMEMBERED,  That  on  the 
seventh  day  of  December,  in  the  twenty-eighth  year  of  the  Inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States  of  America,  Samuel  Miller,  of 
the  said  District,  hath  deposited  in  this  office  the  title  of  a  book, 
the  right  whereof  he  claims  as  author,  in  the  words  following,  to 
wit :  "  A  Brief  Retrospect  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  Part  first ; 
in  two  Volumes :  containing  a  Sketch  of  the  Revolutions  and  Im- 
provements in  Science,  Arts,  and  Literature,  during  that  period. 
By  Samuel  Miller,  A.M.  one  of  the  Ministers  of  the  United 
Presbyterian  Churches  in  the  City  of  New- York,  Member  of  the 
American  Philosophical  Society,  and  Corresponding  Member  of 
the  Historical  Society  of  Massachusetts." 

IN  CONFORMITY  to  the  Act  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  entitled,  "An  Act  for  the  Encourage- 
ment of  Learning,  by  securing  the  Copies  of  Maps, 
Charts,  and  Books,  to  the  Authors  or  Proprietors  of 
such  Copies,  during  the  times  therein  mentioned." 

EDWARD  DUNSCOMB, 

Clerk  of  the  District  of  JYeiv-York. 


CONTENTS 


SECOND  VOLUME. 


Page. 

CHAPTER  Xn. 

Philosophy  op  the  Human  Mind 

1 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Classic 

Literature 

35 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Oriental  Literature 

54 

Section  1. 

Hebrew  Literature 

55 

Section  2. 

Arabic  Literature 

69 

Section  3. 

Persian  Literature 

72 

Section  4. 

Hindoo  Literature 

75 

Section  5. 

Chinese  Literature 

83 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Modern  Languages 

91 

Section  1. 

English  Language 

95 

Section  2. 

Frencfj/f.anguage 

108 

Section  3. 

German  Language 

110 

Section  4. 

Swedish  Language 

114 

Section  5. 

Russian  Language 

115 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

Philosophy  of  Language 

122 

CHAPTER  XVII 

.    History 

129 

CHAPTER  XVIII.    Biography 

149 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

Romances  and  Novels 

155 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Poetry. 

180 

Section  1. 

Epic  Poetry 

185 

Section  2. 

Didactic  Poetry 

190 

Section  3. 

Moral  and  Devotional  Poetry   193 

Section  4. 

Satirical  Poetry 

195 

Section  5. 

Descriptive  Poetry 

201 

Section  6. 

Pastoral  Poetry 

203 

Section  7. 

Lyric  Poetry 

205 

Section  8. 

Elegiac  Poetry 

207 

Section  9. 

Drama 

209 

CHAPTER  XXI.    Literary  Journals  234 


vi  CONTENTS. 

Page. 
CHAPTER  XXII.    Political  Journals  247 

CHAPTER  XXIII.    Literary   and   Scientific   Asso- 
ciations 256 
CHAPTER  XXIV.    Encyclopedias,  &c.                             264 
CHAPTER  XXV.    Education  270 
CHAPTER  XXVI.    Nations  lately  becomeLiterary  302 
Section  1.    Russia                                         303 
Section  2.    Germany  314 
Section  3.     United  States  of  America          330 
Recapitulation                                                                   410 
Additional  Notes                                                               443 


BRIEF  RETROSPECT 


OF    THE 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 


PART  FIRST. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  HUMAN  MIND. 

IF  the  physical  sciences  have  received  great  im- 
provements during  the  century  under  considera- 
tion, it  is  feared  the  same  cannot,  with  truth,  be 
said  respecting  the  science  of  the  human  mind, 
and  the  auxiliary  branches  of  philosophy.  In  this 
wide  field,  new  experiments  and  discoveries,  in  the 
proper  sense  of  the  words,  can  have  no  place;,  and 
there  are  serious  grounds  of  suspicion,  that  many 
modern  systems  of  high  claims,  and  imposing  as- 
pect, are,  by  no  means,  substantial  additions  to 
the  sum  of  knowledge.  There  is  no  doubt,  in- 
deed, that  we  have  happily  gotten  rid  of  much 
pedantry  and  jargon,  which  once  obtained  cur- 
rency among  the  learned.  We  have  thrown  off* 
the  stiff, uncouth,  and  disgusting  habiliments  which 
vol.  nt  b 


2  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

formerly  enveloped  the  systems  of  the  schoolmen. 
But,  in  many  cases,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  that 
one  jargon  has  been  discarded  only  to  adopt  another 
equally  exceptionable.  Various  old  dresses  have 
been  laid  aside,  to  make  way  for  others  more  fashion- 
able, indeed,  but  no  less  fantastic  and  odious.  This 
character,  however,  though  it  belongs  to  many 
modern  metaphysical  writers,  by  no  means  applies 
to  all.  The  last  age  has,  doubtless,  produced  some 
writers,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  substantial 
improvements,  and  real  progress  in  the  interest- 
ing field  of  inquiry  under  consideration.  Even 
some  of  those,  who  taught  doctrines,  in  general, 
delusive,  yet  have  shed  new  light,  and  contri- 
buted to  clear  the  way  for  those  who  should  come 
after  them.  By  many  running  to  and  fro ,  though 
they  frequently  deviated  into  the  paths  of  error* 
knowledge  has  been,  on  the  whole,  increased. 

It  has  been  peculiarly  happy  for  this  branch 
of  philosophy,  that,  in  modern  times,  the  prin- 
ciples and  power  of  language  have  been  more 
studied,  and  better  understood,  than  in  any  pre- 
ceding  century.  One*  great  cause  of  the  dark- 
ness and  perplexity  which  so  long  hung  over  many 
of  the  doctrines  of  mind,  was  the  loose  and  inac- 
curate manner  in  which  the  terms  employed  to  ex- 
plain the  phenomena  were  used.  This  evil,  though 
not  entirely,  has  been,  in  some  measure,  corrected. 
The  use  and  abuse  of  terms  have  received  a  more 
enlightened  attention  than  in  former  times.  The 
art  of  definition  has  become  more  precise,  intelli- 
gible, and  popular.  The  senseless  prating  about 
occult  qualities ',  and  the  perpetual  use  of  unmean- 
ing words,  have  gradually  become  less  fashionable, 
A  habit  of  more  precisely  distinguishing  between 
cause  and  effect,  between  those  things  which  may 
be  investigated  and  those  which  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  the   human   mind,  and  between  those 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind,  3 

truths  which  are  self-evident  and  such  as  require 
demonstration,  has  been  introduced,  and  is  still 
gaining  ground.  And  although  the  sceptical  ten- 
dency of  the  age  has  retarded  the  progress  of  this 
department  of  philosophy  in  these  various  respects, 
yet  we  have  reason  to  rejoice  that  so  much  progress, 
through  defiles  of  error,  has  been  made  as  to  render 
the  last  age  one  of  the  most  distinguished  periods 
in  the  annals  of  the  human  mind. 

It  is,  however,  a  curious  fact,  that  while  a  much 
more  simple  and  intelligible  philosophy  of  mindhas, 
in  the  course  of  the  last  age,  taken  the  place  of 
former  perplexed  and  abstruse  systems, yet  the  study 
of  metaphysics,  through  the  whole  of  that  age,  has 
been  almost  uniformly  declining  in  popularity. 
That  taste  for  light  and  superficial  reading  which 
so  remarkably  characterizes  modern  times,  cannot 
endure  the  accurate,  the  profound,  and  the  patient 
thinking,  so  indispensably  necessary  for  pursuing 
investigations  into  the  laws,  powers,  and  progress 
of  our  intellectual  faculties.  Hence  the  word 
metaphysics  is  seldom  pronounced  but  with  con- 
tempt, as  signifying  something  useless,  unintelli- 
gible, or  absurd.  But  the  profundity  and  diffi- 
culty of  the  subject  do  not  form  the  only  reason 
of  that  general  neglect,  and  want  of  popularity 
attending  studies  of  this  kind,  at  a  period  when 
they  might  be  expected  to  command  more  esteem 
and  attention.  The  dreams,  and  mystical  non- 
sense of  the  schoolmen,  which  scarcely  began  to 
be  rejected  till  the  time  of  Descartes,  and  which 
were  not  generally  thrown  aside  till  after  the  la- 
bours of  Mr.  Locke,  led  a  large  number,  even  of 
the  literary  and  ingenious,  to  decry  pursuits  of  this 
nature,  and  to  imbibe  strong  prejudices  against 
them.  These  prejudices  have  descended  through 
successive  generations,  and  are  yet  far  from  having 
lost  their  iniluence.  But  if  wz/^/ be  our  better  part $ 


4  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

if  its  powers  and  activity  be  all  important,  as  every 
one  must  acknowledge  them  to  be;  and  if  some  cor- 
rect understanding  of  these  powers  be  intimately 
connected  with  our  improvement,  comfort,  and  use- 
fulness; then  to  despise  metaphysics  is  to  despise 
one  of  the  noblest  objects  of  human  inquiry,  and 
to  display  a  most  unworthy  ignorance  of  the  com- 
parative worth  of  those  studies  which  invite  our  at- 
tention. 

It  was  before  remarked,  that  at  the  opening  of 
the  century,  Mr.  Locke  had  laid  his  Essay  on 
Human  Understanding  before  the  world.  The 
publication  of  this  great  work  forms  an  era  in  the 
history  of  metaphysical  science.  The  author  was 
the  first  who  gave,  in  the  English  language,  an 
example  of  writing  on  such  abstract  subjects,  with 
simplicity  and  perspicuity;  and  there  is,  perhaps, 
no  work,  in  any  language,  "  better  adapted  to 
teach  men  to  think  with  precision,  and  to  inspire 
them  with  that  candour  and  love  of  truth  which  is 
the  genuine  spirit  of  philosophy. " 

Though  Des  Cartes  had  done  much,  before  the 
time  of  Mr.  Locke/  to  correct  the  errors  which 
abounded  in  the  ancient  systems  of  metaphysics; 
and  though  some  of  the  leading  opinions  of  that 
great  French  philosopher  were  adopted  by  the  il- 
lustrious Briton,  yet  the  latter  was,  in  many  re- 
spects, an  original,  and  a  reformer  in  science.  His 
investigations  concerning  the  origin  and  formation 


a  Des  Cartes  was  the  first  metaphysician  who  drew  a  plain  and  intel- 
ligible line  of  distinction  between  the  intellectual  and  material  world,  or  be- 
tween spirit  and  body.  The  importance  and  utility  of  this  distinction  are 
obvious.  He  was  the  i4rst  who  showed  that  the  analogical  mode  of  rea» 
soning,  concerning  the  powers  of  the  mind,  from  the  properties  of  body, 
is  totally  erroneous;  and  that  accurate  reflection  on  the  operations  of  our 
own  mind,  is  the  only  way  to  gain  a  just  knowledge  of  them.  It  was  his 
philosophy  which  threw  the  phantasms,  the  sensible  species,  the  substantial 
forms,  &.c.  of  the  old  systems  into  disgrace,  and  introduced  a  more  simple, 
perspicuous  and  rational  method  of  investigating  metaphysical  truth. 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  5 

of  ideas,  concerning  the  use  and  abuse  of  terms, 
and  concerning  the  extent  and  limits  of  our  intel- 
lectual powers,  are  well  known  by  those  conver- 
sant with  the  philosophy  of  mind,  to  display  many 
new  doctrines,  and  to  place  their  author  among 
the  most  profound  thinkers.  Mr.  Locke  differed 
from  Des  Cartes  with  respect  to  the  origin  of  our 
ideas.  The  latter  thought  some  of  them  were  in- 
nate ;  the  former  maintained  that  there  are  no  in- 
nate ideas,  and  that  they  are  all  derived  from  two 
sources,  sensation  and  reflection.  Des  Cartes  sup- 
posed that  the  essence  of  mind  consists  in  thought, 
and  that  of  matter  in  extension ;  while  Locke  be- 
lieved that  the  real  essence  of  both  is  beyond  the 
reach  of  human  knowledge.  The  British  philoso- 
pher explained  more  distinctly  than  any  one  had 
done  before  him,  the  operations  of  the  mind  in 
clasping  the  various  objects  of  thought,  and  re- 
ducing them  to  genera  and  species.  He  was  the 
first  who  distinguished  in  substances  what  he  calls 
the  nominal  essence,  or  that  generic  character,  and 
specific  difference,  which  may  be  expressed  by  a 
definition,  from  the  real  essence,  or  internal  con- 
stitution, which  he  supposed  could  not  be  known; 
and  who,  by  means  of  this  distinction,  pointed  out 
the  way  of  bringing  to  an  issue  those  subtle  dis- 
putes, particularly  the  controversy  between  the 
Nominalists  and  Realists,  which  had  puzzled  the 
schoolmen  for  ages.  He  showed,  more  satisfacto- 
rily than  preceding  inquirers,  how  we  form  abstract 
and  general  notions,  and  the  use  and  necessity  of 
them  in  reasoning.  He  first  expressed  the  dis- 
tinction between  primary  and  secondary  qualities, 
though  the  ideas  implied  in  this  distinction  seem 
to  have  been  in  some  measure  understood  by  Des 
Cartes.  And,  finally,  Mr.  Locke  had  much  merit 
peculiar  to  himself,  in  exhibiting  the  ambiguity  of 
words,  and   by  this  means  solving  many  difficult 


6  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

questions  which  had  tortured  the  wits  of  former 
metaphysicians.6 

From  the  date  of  this  great  man's  work,  the  old 
Ontology  and  Logic  have  declined.  The  philosophy 
of  mind  has  assumed  a  more  simple,  popular,  and 
intelligible  aspect.  And  although  it  has  been  since 
made  to  appear  probable,  that  some  of  the  doc- 
trines which  he  taught  are  erroneous,  especially 
the  theory  of  perception,  which  he  adopted  from 
his  predecessors;  yet  that  he  contributed  more  than 
any  other  individual  of  modern  times  to  develope 
the  nature  and  operations  of  the  human  mind,  and 
to  introduce  a  more  rational  and  correct  mode  of 
philosophising  on  this  subject  than  had  before  pre- 
vailed, seems  to  be  generally  admitted. 

Not  long  before  Mr.  Locke  published  his  cele- 
brated Essay,  Father  Malebranche,  a  learned 
and  acute  metaphysician  of  France,  in  a  work  en- 
titled Recherche  de  la  Verite,  or  Inquiry  after 
Truth,  published  a  doctrine  which  soon  led  to  sin- 
gular consequences.  He  laid  it  down  as  a  prin- 
ciple, which,  indeed,  had  then  been  admitted  by 
all  preceding^  philosophers,  that  we  do  not  per- 
ceive external  objects  immediately,  but  by  means 
of  images,  or  ideas  of  them  present  to  the  mind, 
In  order  to  account  for  the  production  of  these 
ideas  in  the  mind,  he  maintained  that  the  soul  of 
man  is  united  with  a  being  possessed  of  all  perfec- 
tion, who  has  in  himself  the  ideas  of  every  created 
being;  and  therefore  that  we  see  all  things  in  God. 
Malebranche  was  sensible  that  this  system  left 
no  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  material  world; 
for  if  the  mind  sees  all  things  in  God;  or  if  the 
Divine  ideas  alone  are  perceived  by  us,  we  cannot 
be  certain  that  the  various  forms  of  matter  around 
us  exist,  since  the  ideas  in  the  Eternal  Mind  were 

b  See  Essay  on  the  Human  Understandings  passim;  and  Reid's  Essays  on. 
•the  Intellectual  Powers  of  'Man ,  vol,  i.  Essay  %.  chap.  is. 


Philosophy  of  the  Hitman  Mind.  f 

the  same  before  any  creature  was  made.  This 
consequence  he  candidly  acknowledged,  and  main- 
tained that  the  only  evidence  we  have  of  the  ex- 
istence of  a  material  world,  is  derived  from  Reve- 
lation, which  assures  us  that  God  created  the 
heavens  and  the  earth,  and  that  the  Word  ivas 
made  flesh.  This  doctrine  was  vigorously  and  in- 
geniously opposed  by  its  author's  countryman  and 
cotemporary,  Anthony  Arnauld,  Doctor  of  the 
Sorbonne.  But  though  the  latter  succeeded  in 
showing  the  weakness  and  fallacy  of  the  reason- 
ings which  he  attacked,  he  was  not  equally  success- 
ful in  establishing  a  consistent  and  satisfactory 
theory  of  his  own.  The  system  of  Malebranche, 
however,  notwithstanding  its  visionary  character, 
was  warmly  espoused  by  Mr.  Norris,  an  English 
divine,  who,  in  1701,  published  a  large  and  la- 
borious work,  designed  to  explain,  support,  and 
extend  it.  He  went  beyond  the  French  philoso- 
pher, on  the  subject  of  the  material  world;  for  al- 
though he  maintained  the  probability  of  its  exist- 
ence, he  denied  our  having  any  evidence  abso- 
lutely decisive  that  this  is  the  fact. 

In  1710  a  doctrine  still  more  singular  and  dar- 
ing was  announced  by  George  Berkeley,  a  phi- 
losopher of  Ireland,  and  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Cloyne.  This  gentleman,  equally  distinguished  for 
the  penetration  and  comprehensiveness  of  his  mind, 
the  extent  of  his  learning,  and  the  eminence  of  his 
virtues,  denied  the  existence  of  a  material  world; 
contending  that  what  are  usually  called  sensible 
objects  without  us,  are  only  ideas  in  the  mind; 
that  th#re  is  nothing  in  the  universe  but  spirits, 
and  ideas,  or  images  subsisting  in,  and  perceived 
by  them.  He  differed  from  Mr.  Locke  in  several 
other  respects  besides  this:  He  discarded  reflec- 
tion as  a  source  of  ideas;  he  divided  the  objects  of 
human  knowledge  into  two  kinds^  ideas  ana  n4* 


8  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

tions.  The  first,  according  to  him,  are  presented  to 
us  by  our  five  senses;  they  have  no  existence  when 
they  are  not  perceived,  and  exist  only  in  the  minds 
of  those  who  perceive  them.  The  second  kind  of 
objects  he  supposed  to  comprehend  spirits,  their 
acts,  and  the  relations  and  habitudes  of  things :  of 
these,  he  contended,  we  have  notions  but  not 
ideas,  But  of  all  the  opinions  taught  by  this  great 
and  good  man,  none  have  rendered  him  mope  fa- 
mous, than  his  denial  that  those  prototypes  of  our 
ideas,  usually  called  material  objects,  have  any 
real  existence;  and  contending  that  all  the  varied 
beauties  of  creation  which  we  behold,  are  nothing 
more  than  fancies  or  images  impressed  on  the  mind 
for  wise  purposes,  by  the  omnipotent  Creator/ 

Although,  as  was  before  observed,  Father  Male- 
branche  shrunk  from  this  bold  conclusion  of 
Berkeley,  yet  he  was  aware  that  his  reasonings 
Jed  to  it:  and,  indeed,  his  wrork  may  be  said  to 
contain  a  large  portion  of  the  arguments  afterwards 
adopted  by  the  acute  and  learned  Bishop,  in  their 
full  force.  But  to  Berkeley  is  due  the  honour 
of  having  first  openly  espoused  this  doctrine,  so 
contradictory  to  all  our  feelings  and  senses;  of  de- 
fending it  upon  a  more  formal  and  extensive  plan 
than  any  of  his  predecessors;  and  of  giving  new 
and  ingenious  views  of  the  subject/ 

About  three  years  after  the  Bishop's  first  public 
cation  on  this  subject,  Arthur  Collier,  an  Eng- 
lish clergyman,  in  his  book,  called  Clams  Univer- 
salis-y  or  a  New  Inquiry  after  Truth,  endeavoured 


9  See  Principles  cf  Human  Knowledge.     Dublin,  1710. 

d  M.  Dutens,  who  is  anxious  to  find  among  the  ancients  every  inven- 
tion and  doctrine  to  which  the  moderns  lay  claim,  quotes  the  following 
passage,  in  which  something  like  the  Berhhian  doctrine  is  plainly  alluded 
to.    rivslai  Toivoy,  n.oC\'  uvlovj  low  ovjwv   xgClw^tov  0  a.v§?w7To$'   tcccvIoc  yoc^  \x> 

ovh  zfUv.      Sext.  Empiric.   Pyrrhon.   Hypotypos.  lib.  i.  sect.    219.      See    Re- 
•htrshts  sur  V Origins  de  Dccovvertes,  &c.  torn.  i.  $%. 


Philosophy  oj  the  Human  Mind.  9 

to  demonstrate  the  non-existence  and  impossibility 
of  an  external  world.  The  arguments  which  he 
adduced  in  support  of  his  cause  are  the  same  in 
substance  with  those  used  by  Dr.  Berkeley, 
though  the  author  says  nothing  of  the  work  of 
that  celebrated  metaphysician,  and  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  seen  it. 

There  was  only  one  step  more  which  was  left 
for  the  most  daring  metaphysical  revolutionists  to 
take,  viz.  to  deny  the  existence  of  a  spiritual  as 
well  as  of  a  material  world.  This  step  was  at 
length  ventured  upon  by  Mr.  Hume/  a  sceptical 
metaphysician  of  Great-Britain,  whose  acuteness 
and  ingenuity  are  well  known.  Adopting  Mr. 
Locke's,  and  Bishop  Berkeley's  opinion,  that  alL 
the  immediate  objects  of  human  knowledge  are 
ideas  in  the  mind,  he  traced  the  consequences  of 
this  principle  to  their  utmost  extent,  and  con- 
tended that  there  is  neither  matter  nor  mind  in 
the  universe !  That  what  we  call  body  is  only  an 
assemblage  of  sensations;  and  what  we  call  mind 
only  an  assemblage  of  thoughts,  passions,  and  emo- 
tions, without  any  subject.  On  the  opposition  in 
which  the  doctrines  of  the  Irish  Ecclesiastic  and  the 
Scottish  historian  stand  to  the  common  sense,  and 
all  the  spontaneous  and  the  deepest  impressions  of 
mankind,  it  is  needless  to  remark.  Their  authors 
were  sensible  of  this,  and  it  is  probable  did  not, 
in  moments  of  sober  reflection,  believe  their  own 
speculations.     Certain   it  is,  they  both   acknow- 

e  The  universal  scepticism  to  which  the  sophistry  of  Mr.  Hume  leads, 
or  rather  which  it  directly  embraces,  cannot,  with  propriety,  be  considered 
here.  Nor  is  it  necessary.  The  extravagance  and  the  mischievous  ten- 
dency, especially  of  some  of  his  opinions,  seem,  at  present,  to  be  acknowledg- 
ed by  all,  excepting  the  desperate  few,  who  are  ready  calmly  to  resign  all 
principle,  and  all  belief.  The  character  of  his  philosophy,  "  falsely  so 
called,"  has  been  exposed  with  great  beauty  of  rhetoric,  by  Dr.  BeattiEj, 
in  his  Essay  on  Truth ;  and,  with  great  force  of  reasoning,  by  Dr.  Reid,  in 
his  Inquiry  into  the  Hitman  Mi"d>  and  his  Essays  on  the  Intellectual  and  4ctive 
Power's  of  Man. 

VOL.   II.  C 


10  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

ledged  that  the  adoption  of  the  principles  which 
they  maintained  ought  not  to  affect  the  practice 
of  men,  who  must  ever  act  as  if  they  were  known 
to  be  false:  an  argument,  one  would  imagine,  it- 
self, of  strong  presumptive  force,  against  all  their 
plausible  reasonings.  But  however  the  doctrines 
inculcated  by  these  subtle  disputants  might  have 
opposed  their  own  feelings,  or  shocked  the  minds 
of  others,  it  is  certain  they  contributed  much  to 
promote  that  speculative  philosophy,  the  tendency 
of  which  is  to  strike  at  the  root  of  all  knowledge, 
and  all  belief. 

On  observing  the  sceptical  conclusions  which 
Berkeley  and  Hume  had  drawn  from  the  old 
theory  of  perception,  as  it  had  been  taught,  in  sub- 
stance, by  all  writers,  from  Pythagoras  down  to 
their  time,  some  philosophers  of  Great-Britain 
were  led,  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, to  call  this  theory  in  question.  If  it  were  as- 
sumed as  true  that  we  perceive,  not  external  ob- 
jects themselves,  but  only  the  ideas  in  our  minds,, 
they  saw  no  method  of  avoiding  the  consequences 
which  had  been  so  daringly  admitted.  They, 
therefore,  denied  the  grand  doctrine  on  which 
the  whole  superstructure  they  wished  to  oppose 
wTas  built  j  and  endeavoured  to  show,  that,  as  the 
premises  were  gratuitously  assumed  and  false,  so 
the  conclusions  deduced  from  them  were  absurd 
and  impossible.  This  controversy,  doubtless,  de- 
serves to  be  considered  among  the  most  memorable 
of  the  age  5  and  if  the  principles  and  reasonings  of 
certain  modern  metaphysicians  of  North-Britain,  to 
the  publication  of  which  this  controversy  has  given 
rise,  be  regarded  as  just,  they  certainly  form  the 
most  important  accession  which  the  philosophy  of 
mind  has  received  since  the  time  of  Mr.  Locke. 

At  the  head  of  these  British  philosophers  stands 
Dr.  Reid,  who  first,  in  his  Inquiry  into  the  Human 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  1 1 

Mind  on  the  Principles  of  Common  Sense,  and  af- 
terwards in  his  Essays  on  the  Intellechtal  and  Active 
Powers  of  Man,  gave  a  display,  and  attempted  a 
refutation  of  the  sceptical  philosophy,  which  no 
one  who  suitably  estimates  the  importance  of  the 
subject,  can  peruse  without  profound  respect  for 
the'author  and  the  deepest  interest  in  hisrea'scnings.^ 
He  totally  rejected  the  ideal  system,  or  theory  of 
perception,  as  taught  by  his  predecessors,  and 
maintained,  that  the  mind  perceives  not  merely  the 
ideas  or  images  of  external  objects,  but  the  ex- 
ternal objects  themselves;  that  when  these  are 
presented  to  our  senses,  they  produce  certain  im- 
pressions ;  that  these  impressions  are  followed  by 
correspondent  sensations;  and  these  sensations  by 
a  perception  of  the  existence  and  qualities  of  the 
objects  about  which  the  mind  is  employed.  He 
contended  that  all  the  steps  of  this  process  are 
equally  incomprehensible;  that  we  can  assign  no 
other  reason  for  these  facts  taking  place,  but  that 
such  is  the  constitution  of  our  nature;  and  that 
when  sensible  objects  are  presented  to  us,  we  be- 
come persuaded  that  they  exist,  and  that  they  pos- 
sess the  qualities  which  we  witness,  not  by  a  train 
of  reasoning,  by  formal  reflection,  or  by  associ- 
ation of  ideas  5  but  by  a  direct  and  necessary  con- 
nection between  the  presence  of  such  objects  and 
our  consequent  perceptions.  In  short,  the  great 
and  distinguishing  peculiarity  of  this  class  of  meta- 
physicians is,  that  they  appeal  from  the  delusive 
principles  and  shocking  conclusions  of  their  op- 
ponents, to  the  Common  Sense  of  mankind,  as  a  tri- 
bunal paramount  to  all  the  subtleties  of  philosophy. 
The  same  principle  they  apply  to  memory,  and 
other  powers  of  the  mind. 

It  is  obvious,  from  this  view  of  Dr.  Reid's  la- 
bours, that,  although  he  has  taken  much  pains  to 
overturn  the  old  ideal  system,  he  has  not  ventured 


"5  2  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

to  substitute  any  theory  of  his  own  in  its  place. 
Indeed  it  would  have  been  inconsistent  with  his 
leading  doctrine  to  have  attempted  this.  His  aim 
rather  was,  to  give  a  simple  and  precise  statement 
of  facts,  divested  of  all  theoretical  expressions;  to 
show  how  long  philosophers  have  imposed  on 
themselves  by  principles  gratuitously  assumed,  and 
by  words  without  meaning;  and  to  convince  them, 
that  "  with  respect  to  the  process  of  nature  in 
perception,  they  are  no  less  ignorant  than  the  vul- 
gar." Nor  let  any  slight  thk^as  a  mere  negative 
and  unimportant  discovery,  ft  it  be  founded  in 
truth,  "  few  positive  discoveries  in  the  whole  his- 
tory of  science  can  be  mentioned,  which  have  a 
juster  claim  to  high  reputation,  than  that  which 
has  detected,  so  clearly  and  unanswerably,  the 
fallacy  of  an  hypothesis,  which  has  descended  to  us 
from  the  earliest  ages  of  philosophy,  and  which, 
in  modern  times,  has  not  only  served  to  Berke- 
ley and  Hume,  as  the  basis  of  their  sceptical  sys- 
tems, but  was  adopted  as  an  indisputable  truth 
by  Locke,  by  Clarke,  and  by  Newton. "f 

It  ought  in  justice  to  be  stated,  that  Dr.  Reil>, 
however  great  his  merit  for  illustrating  and  de- 
fending the  doctrine  of  Common  Sense,  as  taught 
in  his  metaphysical  writings,  was  by  no  means  the 
first  who  resorted  to  this  method  of  opposing  the. 
sceptical  philosophy  of  the  age.  Father  Buffief, 
a  learned  and  ingenious  Jesuit,  of  France,  early  in 
the  century,  espoused  a,  doctrine  substantially  the 


/  Elements  of  the  Pliloscphy  of Mind ',  by  DlJGALD  STEWART,  F.  R.  S.  E. 
&c.  p.  94,  4to.  1792.  In  adopting,  from  Professor  Stewart,  this  high 
praise  of  Dr.  Reid,  and  his  writings  on  the  human  mind,  I  would  by  no 
means  be  understood  to  express  unqualified  approbation  of  his  philosophy. 
To  me  his  Essays  m  the  Active  Pczuers  of  Man  have  always  appeared 
much  inferior  to  those  on  the  Intellectual  Pavers.  Indeed,  in  the  former 
there  are  several  doctrines  which  I  must  consider  as  entirely  erroneous. 
But  cf  thus  guarding  and  qualifying  one's  approbation  there  is  no  end. 
Speaking  of  Dr.  Re  id's  workb  in  general,  they  are  certainly  among  the 
most  instructive  and  valuable  metaphyseal  writings  of  the  age. 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  1 3 

same,  raid  announced  it  in  his  "  First  Truths"  as 
the  only  ground  that  could  be  taken  in  order  to 
combat  successfully  Des  Cartes,  Malebranche, 
and  Locke.  It  must  be  owned,  indeed,  that  Bufh 
fier  does  not  always  speak  of  this  faculty  or  power 
in  man  in  precisely  the  same  terms  with  Dr. 
Reid  and  his  followers,  nor  can  their  different  ac- 
counts of  the  subject  be  in  every  case  fully  re- 
conciled; yet  there  is  doubtless  such  a  similarity 
between  the  ideas  of  the  learned  Jesuit  and  those 
of  the  celebrated  British  Divine,  that  the  merit  of 
ity  can  hardly  be  yielded  to  the  latter.    To 


originali 

Dr.  Reid,  however,  and  some  contemporary  phi- 
losophers, the  honour  undoubtedly  belongs,  of 
having  more  fully  explained  the  grand  principle 
upon  which  their  system  turns;  of  having  ex- 
tended its  application;  and  of  having  deduced  its 
consequences  in  a  more  explicit  and  systematic 
manner/ 

Since  the  publication  of  Dr.  Reid's  philosophy, 
it  has  been  espoused  and  defended  by  several  dis- 

g  See  First  Truths,  &c.  translated  from  the  French  of  Pere  Buffier 
by  an  anonymous  hand,  8vo.  London,  1780.  The  translator  of  this  work, 
in  a  long  prefatory  discourse,  endeavours  to  fasten  the  charges  of  Plagia- 
rism, Concealment,  and  Ingratitude  on  Drs.  Reid,  Beattie,  and  Oswald, 
with  a  degree  of  zeal,  acrimony,  and  contemptuous  sneer,  by  no  means 
honourable  to  himself.  He  represents  them  as  indebted  to  Buffier  for  the 
substance  of  all  they  have  written.  Whoever  this  violent  assailant  is,  he 
certainly  does  them  injustice.  To  exculpate  those  gentlemen  wholly  from 
the  charge  of  Plagiarism  would  not,  perhaps,  be  easy  ;  but  to  push  the  charge 
so  far  as  he  does,  and  especially  to  treat  their  general  character  and  merits 
as  he  permits  himself  to  do,  cannot  fail  to  disgust  every  candid  reader. 
After  all  that  he  has  advanced  concerning  Pere  Buffier,  the  impartial 
inquirer  will  find  such  a  degree  of  originality  in  the  works  of  the  celebrated 
Scottish  metaphysicians,  especially  those  of  Dr.  Reid,  as  ought  to  secure  to 
them  a  high  and  lasting  reputation. 

The  late  Dr.  Wituerspoon,  President  of  the  College  of  New- Jersey, 
whose  vigour  and  originality  of  mind  are  generally  known,  once  informed 
^  friend,  that  the  first  publication  in  Great-Britain  in  which  Reid's  lead- 
ing doctrine  was  suggested,  and  in  a  degree  developed,  was  an  Essay  written 
hy  himself,  and  published  in  a  Scottish  magazine,  some  years  before  Dr. 
Reid  wrote  on  the  subject.  Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  talents  of 
the  illustrious  President,  and  who  know  how  remote  his  disposition  was 
from  that  vanity  and  arrogance  which  prompt  men  to  make  false  preten- 
sions, will  probably,  without  hesitation,  accredit  bis  claim. 


14  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

tinguished  metaphysicians,  especially  in  Great- 
Britain.  Among  the  most  able  of  these  is  Dr. 
Dugald  Stewart,  Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy 
in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  It  was  before  re- 
marked, that  Dr.  Reid,  after  demolishing  the 
doctrines  of  his  predecessors,  and  laying  the  foun- 
dation of  a  new  system,  forbore  to  undertake  the 
erection  of  an  improved  superstructure  on  this  ba- 
sis. Professor  Stewart,  though  far  from  having, 
in  his  own  estimation,  completed  such  a  super- 
structure, is  yet  considered  as  having  done  some- 
thing towards  it,  and  as  having  rendered  substan- 
tial service  to  the  philosophy  of  mind.  He  has 
carried  some  of  his  doctrines  to  a  greater  length 
than  they  were  carried  by  his  great  predecessor, 
and  in  some  important  particulars  he  dissents  from 
that  able  pneumatologist/ 

The  principles  of  Dr.  Reid  have  also  been 
adopted,  and  perspicuously  displayed  by  Dr. 
Beattie,  in  his  Essay  on  Truth,  and  other  publi- 
cations; by  Dr.  Oswald,  in  his  Appeal  to  Com- 
mon Sense  in  Behalf  of  Religion ;  by  Lord  Kaims, 
in  his  Sketches  of  the  History  of  Man;  by  Dr.  A. 
Ferguson,  in  his  Principles  of  Moral  and  Political 
Science;  and  by  some  other  respectable  writers. 

A  system  of  pneumatology,  partly  belonging  to 
the  eighteenth  century,  from  the  noise  which  it 
made,  and  the  speculations  which  it  excited  dur- 
ing that  period,  is  that  of  the  celebrated  Leibnitz, 
a  philosopher  of  Germany,2'  who  was  mentioned 

b  It  is  not  easy,  in  this  place,  to  point  out  the  particulars  in  which  Dr. 
Stewart  differs  from  Dr.  Reid.  The  reader  will  receive  satisfactory 
information  on  this  subject  by  looking  into  those  chapters  in  Stewart's 
Elements  of  the  Philosophy  of  the  Mind,  which  treat  of  Conception,  Abstraction, 
and  Association. 

i  In  chronological  strictness,  the  system  of  Leibnitz  ought  to  have 
been  noticed  before  those  of  Berkeley,  Hume,  and  Reid;  but  as  the 
latter  stood  in  close  connection  with  the  doctrines  of  Malebranche,  and 
as  it  did  not  appear  expedient  to  interrupt  the  course  of  narration  respect- 
ing them,  it  has  been  judged  proper  to  introduce  a  brief  account  of  the  doc- 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  1 5 

in  a  former  chapter.  This  system  appears  to  have 
been  formed  by  its  author,  with  a  view,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  amend  the  theory  of  Des  Cartes, 
and  on  the  other  to  oppose  the  doctrines  of  Newton. 
Leibnitz  conceived  the  whole  universe,  minds  as 
well  as  bodies,  to  be  made  up  of  monads,  that  is, 
simple  substances,  each  of  which  is,  by  the  Cre- 
ator, in  the  beginning  of  its  existence,  endowed 
with  certain  active  and  perceptive  powers.  A 
monad,  therefore,  is  an  active  substance,  simple, 
without  parts  or  figure,  which  has  within  itself 
the  power  to  produce  all  the  changes  it  undergoes, 
from  the  beginning  of  its  existence  to  eternity. 
The  changes,  according  to  him,  which  the  monad 
undergoes,  of  whatever  kind,  though  they  may 
seem  to  us  the  effects  of  causes  operating  from  with- 
out, yet  are  only  the  gradual  and  successive  evo- 
lutions of  its  own  internal  powers,  which  would 
have  produced  all  the  same  changes  and  motions, 
although  there  had  been  no  other  being  in  the 
universe.  He  taught  that  every  human  soul  is  a 
monad,  joined  to  an  organized  body,  which  or- 
ganized body  consists  of  an  infinite  number  of 
monads,  each  having  some  degree  of  active  and 
perceptive  power  in  itself;  but  that  the  whole 
machine  of  the  body  has  a  relation  to  that  monad 
which  we  call  the  soul,  which  is,  as  it  were,  the 
center  of  the  whole.  He  further  supposed  that 
there  are  different  orders  of  monads,  some  higher, 
and  others  lower.  To  the  higher  orders  he  gave 
the  name  of  dominant,  and  to  this  class  belongs 
the  human  soul.  Those  which  make  up  the  or- 
ganized bodies  of  men,  animals,  plants,  &c.  he 


trlnes  of  the  illustrious  German  in  this  place.  Leibnitz  died  in  the  year 
ijid.  He  was  considered  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  the  period  in  which 
he  lived.  In  vigour  and  comprehensiveness  of  mind  he  was  eminently  dis- 
tinguished ;  in  the  variety  and  versatility  of  his  talents  he  had  few  equals ; 
and  in  the  extent  of  his  acquirements  he  was  almost  unrivalled. 


16  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

contended  were  of  a  lower  order,  and  subservient 
to  the  dominant  monads.  But  every  monad,  of 
whatever  order,  he  represented  as  a  complete  sub- 
stance in  itself,  having  no  parts,  and  indestructi- 
ble by  any  power  less  than  Divine,  which  there 
is  no  reason  to  believe  will  ever  be  exerted  in 
the  annihilation  of  any  being  which  it  has  created. 
Finally,  he  maintained  that  monads  of  a  lower 
order  may,  by  a  regular  evolution  of  their  powers, 
rise  to  an  higher  order;  that  they  may  be  succes- 
sively joined  to  organized  bodies,  of  various  forms, 
and  different  degrees  of  perception ;  but  that  they 
can  never  die,  nor  cease  to  be,  in  some  degree, 
active  and  percipient. 

This  philosopher  distinguished  between  percep- 
tion and  apperception.  The  former  he  supposed 
common  to  all  monads.  The  latter,  implying  con- 
sciousness, reflection,  and  a  capacity  to  compre- 
hend abstract  truths,  he  believed  to  be  peculiar  to 
the  higher  orders,  such  as  the  soul  of  man.  He 
conceived  that  our  bodies  and  minds  are  united  in 
such  a  manner  that  neither  has  any  physical  in- 
fluence on  the  other,  each  performing  all  its  ope- 
rations by  its  own  internal  powers;  yet  the  opera- 
tions of  one  corresponding  exactly  with  those  of 
the  other,  by  a  pre-established  harmony.  Ac- 
cording to  this  system,  all  our  perceptions  of  ex- 
ternal objects  would  be  the  same,  though  those  ob- 
jects had  never  existed,  or  though  they  should,  by 
Divine  power,  be  annihilated.  We  do  not  per- 
ceive external  things  because  they  exist,  but  be- 
cause the  soul  was  originally  so  constituted  as  to 
produce  in  itself  all  its  successive  changes  and  per- 
ceptions independently  of  external  objects.  Every 
operation  of  the  soul  is  the  necessary  consequence 
of  that  state  of  it  which  preceded  the  operation; 
and  that  state  the  necessary  consequence  of  the 
state  immediately  preceding  it,  and  so  backwards, 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  17 

till  we  come  to  its  first  constitution,  which  pro- 
duces successively,  and  by  necessary  consequence, 
every  successive  state  throughout  the  whole  course 
of  its  existence/ 
.  This  system,  for  many  years  after  its  publica- 
tion, excited  uncommon  attention,  and  obtained 
great  currency,  especially  in  the  native  country  of 
the  author.  It  was  early  espoused  by  Carolus 
Wolfius,  a  celebrated  philosopher  also  of  Ger- 
many, a  most  voluminous  commentator  on  the 
writings  of  his  master,  and  a  zealous  defender  of 
his  doctrines.  On  the  foundation  of  these  doc- 
trines he  formed  a  new  system  of  cosmology  and 
pneumatology,  digested  and  demonstrated  in  a 
mathematical  method.  The  principles  of  Leib- 
nitz had  also  some  advocates,  either  in  whole  or 
in  part,  in  other  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe, 
and  in  Great-Britain,  for  a  considerable  time.  But, 
at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  their  reputa- 
tion had  much  diminished,  and  they  were  adopted 
by  comparatively  few,  in  any  part  of  the  philoso- 
phical world. 

Among  the  great  theorists  in  pneumatology 
which  belong  to  this  period,  Dr.  Hartley,  a  ce- 
lebrated English  physician,  also  holds  a  conspi- 
cuous place/  The  two  grand  principles  on  which 
his  whole  system  rests,  are  those  of  Vibration  and 
Association.     Newton  had  taught  that  the  rays  of 

j  Reid's  Intellectual  Powers  of  Mar.,  Essay  ii. 

k  Dr.  David  Hartley  was  born  in  Yorkshire,  August  30,  1705,  and 
died  at  Bath,  August  28,  I7J7-.  His  great  work,  the  Observations  on  Man, 
was  published  in  1749.  He  was  educated  with  a  view  to  the  clerical  pro- 
fession, in  the  Church  of  England;  but  feeling  some  scruples  about  sub- 
scribing to  the  thirty-nine  articles,  he  relinquished  that  design,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  and  practice  of  medicine,  in  which  he  was  eminent. 
While  he  departed  from  the  public  standards  of  his  church  in  several  im- 
portant particulars,  he  was  much  distinguished  for  the  force  of  his  mind, 
the  extent  of  his  learning,  the  amiableness  and  benevolence  of  his  dispo- 
sition, and  the  purity  of  his  moral  character.  He  was  a  firm  believer  in 
Revelation,  and  wrote,  though  not  with  orthodoxy,  yet  with  great  scrioui- 
ness  and  ability  in  its  defence. 

VOL.  II,  D 


1$  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

light,  falling  upon  the  bottom  of  the  eye,  excite 
vibrations  in  the  retina,  and  that  these  vibrations 
being  propagated  along  the  optic  nerves  into  the 
brain,  produce  the  sensation  of  seeing.  Dr.  Hart- 
ley adopted  this  hypothesis,  and  applied  it,  with 
ingenious  additions  and  modifications  of  his  own, 
to  the  other  senses.  Mr.  Locke  had  thrown  new 
light  on  the  doctrine  of  association,  and  shown  its 
great  influence  and  importance  in  the  operations 
of  the  human  mind.  Dr.  Hartley  also  adopted 
the  leading  ideas  of  this  great  metaphysician  on  this 
subject,  and  by  uniting  them  with  the  Newtonian 
opinions,  formed  a  system  on  which  the  praise  of 
great  ingenuity  and  plausibility  has  been  be- 
stowed. 

He  taught,  that  the  white  medullary  substance 
of  the  brain,  spinal  marrow,  and  the  nerves  pro- 
ceeding from  them,  form  the  immediate  instrument 
of  sensation  and  motion;  that  whatever  changes 
are  produced  in  this  substance,  corresponding 
changes  take  place  in  our  ideas;  that  external  ob- 
jects impressed  upon  the  nerves  occasion,  first  in 
the  nerves  on  which  they  are  impressed,  and  then 
in  the  brain,  vibrations of  the  small  and  infinitesi- 
mal medullary  particles,  which  vibration  excites  a 
sensation  in  the  percipient  principle,  which  re- 
mains as  long  as  4he  vibration  lasts,  that  is,  as  long 
as  the  object  continues  to  affect  the  organs  of  sense. 
That  the  medullary  substance  having  once  vibrated 
in  a  particular  manner,  does  not  return  entirely  to 
its  natural  state,  but  continues  disposed  to  vibrate 
in  that  manner  rather  than  any  other,  which  ten- 
dency of  the  brain  to  the  renewal  of  the  vibration 
is  the  cause  of  the  retention  of  the  idea  in  the  ab- 
sence of  the  archetype.  That  whatever  renews 
the  vibration,  renews  also  the  perception;  but  the 
renewed  vibration  being  less  vigorous  than  the 
original  one,  is  called  a  miniature  vibration,  or  vi* 


'Philosophy  of  the  Hainan  Mind.  19 

irathiTtcle,  and  the  renewed  perception  correspond- 
ing with  it  is  called  an  idea.  That  vibrations  may 
be  revived  not  only  by  the  repetition  of  external 
impressions,  but  by  their  association  with  each 
other;  and  that,  of  vibrations  which  have  been 
associated  together  a  sufficient  number  of  times, 
either  synchronously,  or  in  succession,  if  one  be 
excited,  it  will  excite  the  miniatures  of  all  the  rest. 
This  is  supposed  to  furnish  a  solution  to  all  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  association  of  ideas. 

According  to  this  theory,  the  nerves  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  sensory  and  motory  ;  the  former 
being  the  immediate  instruments  of  sensation,  the 
latter  of  motion.  Both  originate  in  the  medullary 
substance  of  the  brain,  and  their  vibrations  influ- 
ence and  modify  each  other.  In  short,  every  sen- 
sation, idea,  muscular  motion,  affection,  and  in- 
ternal feeling  whatever,  is  supposed,  by  Dr.  Hart- 
ley, to  correspond  with  some  vibratory  state  of 
the  medullary  substance,  so  that  the  one  may  be 
regarded  as  the  exDonent  of  the  other/ 

Though  this  system  contains  many  ideas,  which 
bear  a  near  relation  to  the  theories  of  Des  Cartes, 
Ma£ebranche,  and  Leibnitz  f  and  though  its 
two  fundamental  principles  are  derived  from  the 
works  of  Newton  and  Locke,  yet  the  author  has 
a  considerable  claim  to  the  character  of  originality. 
His  doctrines,  combined  as  they  are,  and  formed 
into  a  fair  structure,  belong  to  himself,  and  cer- 
tainly present  some  new  and  useful  truth.  It  seems 
to  be  the  opinion  of  many  that  he  ought  to  be 
classed  with  the  materialists  of  the  age,  and  it  is 
not  easy  to  assign  him  any  other  place.  This,  in- 
deed, is  contrary  to  his  own  express  declarations. 
He  was  apprehensive  lest  the  doctrine  of  corporeal 

/   Ooservttions  on  Man,  vol.  i.      See  also  Belsham's  Elements  of  the  Phi' 
ttsophy  of  Mind,    &c.  8vo.  l8oi. 
"m  Observations  en  Man,  vol.  i.  p.  1 10  and  ill,  Edit.  Lond.  I79*« 


20  Pliilosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

vibrations,  which  forms  so  prominent  a  feature  of 
his  work,  should  be  deemed  favourable  to  materi- 
alism. "  He  was  therefore  anxious  to  declare, 
and  to  have  it  understood,  that  he  was  no  materi- 
alist."" Notwithstanding  this  declaration,  how- 
ever, it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  his  doctrines  with 
the  immateriality  of  the  soul.  Good  judges  have 
pronounced  that  if  these  doctrines  be  pursued  to 
their  natural  consequences,  they  must  terminate 
in  absolute  Spinozism.  Accordingly  it  is  well 
known,  that  some  of  the  most  distinguished  ma- 
terialists of  the  age  not  only  profess  to  admire  Dr. 
Hartley's  work,  but  also  adopt  his  reasonings, 
and  acknowledge  him  as  their  great  master. 

Another  metaphysical  system,  which  deserves  to, 
be  mentioned  among  the  curiosities  of  the  age,  is 
that  adopted  and  published  by  Lord  Monboddo,  a 
celebrated  and  voluminous  writer  of  North-Britain. 
This  system  is,  in  fact,  little  more  than  a  revival  of 
what  his  Lordship  considers  the  Aristotelian  philo- 
sophy, or  the  doctrine  of  Universale,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  some  crude  and  absurd  visions  of  his  own, 
which  have  been  little  studied,  and  still  less  respect- 
ed by  those  who  are  competent  to  judge. 

n  The  following  passage  is  extracted  from  the  Life  of  Dr.  Hartlet, 
published  with  the  last  edicion  of  his  work. 

"  There  was  but  one  point  in  which  he  appeared  anxious  to  prevent  any 
misapprehension  of  his  principles  :  that  point  respected  the  immateriality 
of  the  soul.  He  was  apprehensive  lest  the  doctrine  of  corporeal  vibrations, 
being  instrumental  to  sensation,  should  be  deemed  unfavourable  to  the 
opinion  of  the  immateriality  of  the  soul.  He  was  therefore  anxious  to  de- 
clare, and  to  have  it  understood,  that  he  was  not  a  materialist.  He  has 
not  presumed  to  declare  any  sentiment  respecting  the  nature  of  the  soul, 
but  the  negative  one,  that  it  cannot  be  material  according  to  any  idea  or 
definition  that  we  can  form  of  matter.  He  has  given  the  following  defini- 
tion of  matter,  viz.  *  That  it  is  a  mere  passive  thing,  of  whose  very  es- 
sence it  is  to  be  endued  with  a  vis  inertia ;  for  this  vis  inertia  presents  itself 
immediately  in  all  our  observations  and  experiments  upon  it,  and  is  inse- 
parable from  it,  even  in  idea.'  The  materiality  therefore  of  the  sensitive 
soul  is  precluded,  by  the  definition  of  matter  being  incapable  of  sensation. 
If  there  be  any  other  element  capable  of  sensation,  the  soul  may  consist  of 
that  element ;  but  that  is  a  new  supposition,  still  leaving  the  original  ques- 
tion concluded  in  the  negative,  by  the  fundamental  definition  of  matter," 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  2 1 

Lord  Monboddo  analyzes  sensible  objects  into 
matter  and  form,  and  teaches,  like   most  of  the 
disciples  of  the  Stagirite,  the  eternity   of  both. 
He  insists  that  there  are  in  man  four  distinct  minds, 
viz.  the  elemental,  the  vegetable,  the  animal,  and 
the  intellectual ;  that  of  these,  the  intellectual  only 
is  immortal;  that  the  soul  is  not  created  for  any 
particular  body,  but  transmigrates  from    one   to 
another ;  that  there  are  different  grades  of  minds'; 
those  which  occupy  earths  and  stones,  and  those 
which  reside  in  plants  and  the  inferior  animals  up 
to  man ;  that  gravitation  is  nothing  more  than  the 
activity  of  a  soul  residing  in,  and  animating  masses 
of  earth ;  and  that  it  is  more  honourable  to  the  Deity 
to  consider  him  as  operating  in  all  the  departments 
of  nature,  by  the  instrumentality  of  inferior  minds, 
than  to  represent  him  as  acting  on  matter  immedi- 
ately.    Whether  the  souls  of  men  transmigrate  to 
the  bodies  of  brutes  he  is  doubtful;  but  that  the 
souls  of  vegetables  and  inferior  animals  each  trans- 
migrate from  one  to  another  of  their  own  species, 
and  perhaps  from  a  lower  to  a  higher,  and  vice 
versa,  he  thinks  there  is  abundant  reason  to  be- 
lieve. 

So  far  as  Lord  Monboddo  agrees  with  the  Aris- 
totelian philosophy,  he  talks  with  a  semblance  of 
reason,  and  may  be  read  with  patience.  But  the 
extraordinary  consequences  which  he  draws  from 
this  ancient  system  of  pneumatology,  the  capricious 
use  which  he  makes  of  it,  and  his  visionary  and  fan- 
tastic additions  to  it,  render  his  work  as  singular  a 
mass  of  good  sense  and  absurdity,  erudition  and  n-. 
diculous  credulity,  as  any  age  ever  produced.0     Mr, 

o  See  Ancient  Metaphysics,  5  vols.  4to.  From  the  singular  opinions 
which  abound  in  this  learned  and  extensive  work,  the  following  selection 
is  offered  to  the  reader  as  a  specimen.  That  the  Ourang  Gutang  is  a  man 
not  civilized;  that  men  originally  wore  tails,  and  went  upon  all  fours ;  but 
that  the  one  dropt  off,  and  they  rose  from  the  other  to  an  erect  posture  by 
the  progress  of  civilization  ;  d.at  the  natural  state  of  man  is  to  live  without 


f§  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind, 

James  Harris,  in  his  Hermes,  and  in  his  Philoso* 
pkical  Arrangements,  strove,  with  equal  zeal,  nearly 
about  the  same  time,  to  revive  the  philosophy  of 
Aristotle,  but  without  so  strangely  distorting  its 
features,  or  encumbering  it  with  such  heterogene- 
ous and  whimsical  additions. 

Among  the  new  metaphysical  theorists  of  the 
age,  it  would  be  improper  to  pass  in  silence  the  ce- 
lebrated Immaxuel  Kant,  Professor  at  Koenings- 
berg,  in  Prussia.  This  gentleman,  about  the  year 
1781,  first  published  a  system  of  metaphysics  and 
moral  philosophy,  which  has  been  ever  since  gain- 
ing ground  among  the  literati  of  Germany,  a:":-0,  is 
now  much  in  vogue  in  that  country.  Professor 
Kant,  we  are  told,  was  led  to  the  train  of  think- 
ing, which  ripened  in  his  mind  into  the  system 
which  bears  his  name,  by  the  perusal  of  Hume's 
essay  on  the  idea  of  necessary  connection;  and  of 
Priestley's  reply  to  Retd,  Beat  tie,  and  Oswald/ 
But  from  whatever  source  his  ideas  are  derived,  he 
has  formed  them  into  a  fabric,  which  is  extolled 
by  his  adherents  as  one  ot  the  most  sublime  efforts 
of  human  genius,  and  as  ranking  among  the  most 
important  improvements  ever  made  in  science.  If 
we  may  believe  the  extravagant  panegyrics  of  these 
enthusiastic  disciples,  he  has  more  successfully  ex- 
plored the  darkest  recesses  of  the  human  mind 
than  any  individual  amongst  all  his  illustrious  pre- 
nd  his  writings  contain  adevelopement 
of  precisely  those  truths  after  which  mankind  have 
been  seeking  for  centuries  in  vain. 

o 

::on,  cloathing,  fire,  or  language  ;  that  his  best  and  only  proper  food 
is  raw  vegetables;  that  there  hav.  .:s  of  two  and  three,  and  in 

some  ::.-  ol  ;lght  and  nine  times  the  height  cf  ordinary  men  in  these 

cegeni.-  '.ere  are  now  hot  .  and  whole 

I  who  have  but  one  leg ;  that  in  Ethiopia  there  are  men  who  have 
their  eyes  in  their  nd  others  v.  fa  '.y  one  eye,  and  that  in 

their  forehead!!  !   fcc 

f  &  ?  :.  by  J.  C.  Abelung:  translated, 

with  additions,  by  A.E.  M.  WiLuci:,  M,  D.     Load.  Svo.  1798. 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  23 

"  Still,  however,  when  inquiry  is  made,  among 
the  followers  of  this  singular  man,  respecting  the 
general  drift  of  his  system,  they  answer  chiefly  in 
negations.  It  ib  not  atheism ;  for  he  affirms  that 
practical  reason  is  entitled  to  infer  the  existence  of 
a  Supreme  Intelligence.  It  is  not  theism ;  for  he 
denies  that  theoretical  reason  can  demonstrate  the 
existence  of  an  infinite  intelligent  Being.  It  is  not 
materialism;  for  he  maintains  that  time  and  space 
are  only  forms  of  our  perception,  and  not  the  at- 
tributes of  extrinsic  existences.  It  is  not  idealism ; 
for  he  maintains  that  noumena  are  independent  of 
phenomena;  that  things  perceptible  are  prior  to 
perception.  It  is  not  libertinism;  for  he  allows 
the  will  to  be  determined  by  regular  laws.  It  is 
not  fatalism;  for  he  defines  this  to  be  a  system  in 
ch  the'  connection  of  purposes  in  the  world  is 
considered  as  accidental.  It  is  not  dogmatism; 
for  he  favours  every  possible  doubt.  It  is  not 
scepticism;  for  he  affects  to  demonstrate  what  he 
teaches.  Such  are  the  indefinite  evasions  of  this 
school."7  The  disciples  of  this  celebrated  pro- 
fessor assure  us  that  their  system  is  so  profound  and 
extensive,  that  the  acutest  understanding  cannot 
tolerably  comprehend  it  by  less  than  a  twelve- 
month's study;  and  that  to  become  a  thorough 
master  of  its  subtle  and  recondite  principles,  re- 
quires the  unwearied  labour  of  many  years.  After 
such  a  declaration,  it  would  be  presumptuous  for 
one  but  slightly  acquainted  with  the  subject  to 
attempt  an  exhibition  even  of  the  outlines  of  this 
plan.  But  not  to  omit  all  notice  of  so  celebrated  a 
system,  it  may  be  proper  to  state  the  following 
doctrines,  as  among  the  elementary  principle* 
which  it  contains. 

f  Monthly  Jtojro  of  Londos,  vol.  xxviii.  N.  S.  p.  61. 1707* 


24  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

Professor  Kant  teaches  that  all  men  have  a 
certain  innate  faculty,  consisting  in  the  capacity 
of  the  soul  to  receive  immediate  representations  of 
objects;  that  the  representations  which  this  sensi- 
tive faculty  affords  us  are  perceptions;  that  all  our 
perceptions  have  a  two-fold  form,  space  and  time; 
that  this  faculty  ought  to  be  called  theoretical  rea+ 
son,  or  speculative  understanding ;  and  that  it  is  of 
so  limited  a  nature  that  it  cannot  perceive  any  thing 
beyond  the  two  forms  already  mentioned,  one  of 
which  belongs  to  the  perception  of  our  internal, 
and  the  other  to  that  of  our  external  senses.  He 
maintains,  that  the  objects  which  we  perceive  in 
space  exist  not  externally,  but  only  internally; 
they  are  mere  phenomena,  but  cannot  be  said  to 
be  only  ideal,  nor  to  have  no  objective  reality; 
because  they  depend  on  established  laws,  and  real 
principles.  When,  therefore,  they  are  said  to  exists 
no  more  is  meant  than  that  they  are  perceived  in 
space,  or  in  the  form  of  external  organization.  He 
believes,  that  as  the  nature  and  form  of  our  per- 
ceptions are  determined  by  the  nature  of  our  sensi- 
ble faculty,  so  the  form  of  our  thoughts,  or  the 
manner  in  which  we  judge  concerning  phenomena^ 
or  arrange  our  perceptions,  is  determined  by  the 
nature  of  our  theoretical  reason;  and  as  that  wrhich, 
wmen  knowledge  is  obtained  by  means  of  the 
senses,  gives  a  form  to  the  matter  perceived,  is 
called  a  pure  perception ;  so  that  by  which  we  de- 
termine the  connection  of  our  observations,  and 
form  a  judgment  concerning  them,  is  called  a  pure 
notion,  or  category.  Those  pure  notions  which  are 
discoverable  by  an  analysis  of  the  judgment,  may 
be  reduced  to  notions  of  quantity,  quality,  rela- 
tion and  modification.  These  categories,  consi- 
dered abstractedly,  are  not  deduced  from  our  per- 
ceptions and  experience,  but  exist  in  the  mind 
prior  to  these  latter,  and  experience  is  the  result  of 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  25 

their  combination  with  our  perceptions;  but  it  is 
only  in  connection  with  our  perceptions  that  these 
pure  notions  can  be  the  source  of  knowledge;  for, 
in  themselves,  they  are  mere  forms,  without  any 
independent  existence.  They  serve  to  direct  us  in 
the  use  of  our  observations ;  but  they  cannot  extend 
our  knowledge  beyond  the  limits  of  perception 
and  experience. " 

"  There  are,  according  to  Professor  Kant,  two 
kinds  of  propositions,  concerning  which  our  minds 
may  be  employed,  analytical  and  synthetical. 
The  former  are  those  in  which  we  only  explain  or 
illustrate  that  of  which  we  have  already  some  idea; 
whereas,  in  the  latter,  we  increase  our  knowledge, 
by  adding  something  new  to  our  former  idea  of 
the  subject.  Thus,  when  we  say  all  matter  is  ex- 
tended, we  form  an  analytical  proposition;  and 
when  we  say,  all  bodies  have  a  certain  zceight,  that 
is  a  synthetical  proposition. 

"  Without  experience,  we  cannot  form  any  syn- 
thetical proposition  concerning  the  objects  or 
matter  of  our  knowledge ;  but,  as  the  forms  of  our 
knowledge  are  independent  of  and  prior  to  our  ex- 
perience, we  may,  with  respect  to  the  pure  notions 
already  mentioned,  conceive  synthetical  proposi- 
tions, or  acquire  pure  science;  and  indeed  it  is 
only  when  we  have  pure  perceptions  and  pure  no- 
tions for  our  objects,  that  we  can  arrive  at  univer- 
sal and  necessary  certainty;  as  is  the  case  in  pure 
mathematics  and  philosophy,  in  which  we  con- 
sider truth,  abstracted  from  matter,  with  respect 
only  to  the  forms  or  laws  of  knowledge  and  volition, 
"  Beside  theoretical  reason,  M.  Kant  ascribes 
to  man  another  faculty,  which  he  calls  practical 
reason,  endued  with  power  sufficient  to  impel  and 
direct  the  will.  He  asserts  that,  if  this  faculty 
were  not  granted,  it  w^ould  follow  that  practical 
laws  would  not  be  universal  moral  precepts^  but 
vol.  ji.  E 


26  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

only  particular  maxims,  which  individuals  might 
prescribe  to  themselves  as  the  rule;  of  their  conduct. 
To  these  universal  moral  laws,  practical  reason 
commands  our  implicit  obedience,  without  any 
regard  to  our  inclinations  or  views  of  advantage. 
These  are  indeed  sometimes  at  variance  with  the 
dictates  of  duty,  but,  in  order  to  diminish  their  in- 
fluence as  obstacles  to  virtue,  our  practical  reason 
must  determine  us  firmly  to  believe  the  existence 
of  the  Deity,  and  of  a  future  state  in  which  our 
happiness  will  be  proportioned  to  our  internal 
worth.  This  is  what  our  philosopher  calls  rational 
faith,  as  it  is  independent  of  all  knowledge  of  its 
object ;  for  the  principles  of  religion  can  be  neither 
demonstrated  nor  disproved  by  theoretical  reason, 
but  are  mere  postulates  of  practical  reason;  and 
the  only  theology  that  is  really  founded  on  our 
understanding,  is  moral  theology,  which  depends 
on  moral  principles. "r 

The  complaint  that  all  this  is  obscure  and  scarcely 
intelligible,  will  probably  be  made  by  every  reader. 
An  English  philosopher  tells  us,  that  it  would  re- 
quire more  than  ordinary  industry  and  ingenuity 
to  make  a  just  translation,  or  a  satisfactory  ab- 
stract of  the  system  in  question,  in  our  language; 
that  for  this  purpose  a  new  nomenclature,  more 
difficult  than  that  of  the  Linnsean  Botany,  must  be 
invented.  This  circumstance  itself  affords  strong 
presumption  against  the  rationality  and  truth  of 
the  Kantian  philosophy,  Locke  and  Newton 
found  little  difficulty  in  making  themselves  under- 
stood. Every  man  of  plain  good  sense,  who  is 
used  to  inquiries  of  that  nature,  readily  compre- 
hends their  systems,  in  as  little  time  as  it  requires 
to  peruse  their  volumes.     Even    Berkeley  and 


r  The  above  brief  account  of  the  Kantian  system  of  Pnevmatotogy  Is  cx» 
traded  from  a  British  Literary  Journal. 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  27 

Hume,  with  all  their  delusive  subtleties,  found 
means  to  render  themselves  easily  intelligible.  Is 
there  not  reason,  then,  to  suspect,  either  that  the 
system  of  Professor  Kant  is  made  up  of  hetero- 
geneous, inconsistent  and  incomprehensible  mate- 
rials; or  that,  in  order  to  disguise  the  old  and  well 
known  philosophy  of  certain  English  and  French 
writers,  and  to  impose  it  on  the  world  as  a  new 
system,  he  has  done  little  more  than  present  it  un- 
der a  new  technical  vocabulary  of  his  own?  Or, 
which  is,  perhaps,  not  the  most  improbable  sup- 
position, that,  being  sensible  of  the  tendency  of  his 
philosophy  to  undermine  all  religion  and  morals, 
as  hitherto  taught  and  prized  in  the  world,  he  has 
studied  to  envelope  in  an  enigmatic  language,  a 
system  which  he  wishes  to  be  understood  by  the  in- 
itiated alone;  a  system  which  has  been  pronounced 
"  an  attempt  to  teach  the  sceptical  philosophy  of 
Hume  in  the  disgusting  dialect  of  scholasticism?!* 
At  any  rate,  notwithstanding  all  the  unwearied 
pains  which  some  of  the  disciples  of  this  famous 
Prussian  have  taken,  to  rescue  him  from  the  im- 
putation of  being  one  of  the  sceptical  philosophers 
of  the  age,  the  most  impartial  judges  will  pro- 
bably assign  him  a  place  among  those  metaphysical 
empirics  of  modern  times,  whose  theoretical  jar- 
gon, instead  of  being  calculated  to  advance  sci- 
ence, or  to  forward  human  improvement,  has 
rather  a  tendency  to  delude,  to  bewilder,  and  to 
shed  a  baneful  influence  on  the  true  interests  of  man. 
The  system  of  Kant  has  found  numerous  friends 
and  commentators,  particularly  in  Germany,  who 
contend,  that  it  sets  limits,  on  the  one  hand,  to 
the  scepticism  of  Hume;  while,  on  the  other,  it  re- 
futes and  overturns  materialism,  fatalism,  and  athe- 
ism, as  well  as  fanaticism  and  infidelity.  Among 
those  who  have  distinguished  themselves  as  the 
friends  and  advocates  of  this  system,  Reinhold, 


28  Philosophy  of  the  Hitman  Mind. 

Schulze,  Schmid,  Jacob,  "Will,  Reimarus,  and 
Adelung,  hold  a  distinguished  place.  On  the 
contrary,  among  its  opponents,  we  find  the  names 
of  Herder,  Plattner,  Selle,  and  many  others. 
The  controversy  to  which  the  Critical  Philosophy 
has  given  rise,  as  it  has  produced  a  multitude  of 
voluminous  publications,  so  it  will  long  be  ranked 
among  the  most  curious  and  interesting  of  the  age. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  century  under  consider- 
ation, a  new  doctrine  concerning  the  human  mind 
was  announced,  which  is  entitled  to  some  notice 
in  this  place.  This  doctrine,  it  is  believed,  was 
first  adopted  and  advanced  by  M.  Helvetius,  a 
celebrated  French  writer/  He  was  followed  by 
M.  Condorcet/  and  some  others,  also  of  France; 
by  means  of  whose  writings  it  obtained  consider- 
able currency  among  the  literati  of  that  country, 
and  was  afterwards  embraced  and  defended,  with 
•much  plausibility,  by  Mr.  Godwin,'1'  and  others, 
of  Great-Britain/ 

The  advocates  of  this  doctrine  maintain  the  Per- 
fectibility of  Man.  With  regard  to  the  nature  of 
the  human  mind  they  appear,  in  general,  to  em- 
brace the  system  of  materialism.1"  They  suppose 
that  the  thinking  principle  of  man  is  the  result  of 
corporeal  organization;  that  the  difference  in  minds 
results  from  the  difference  of  this  organization,  and 
inore  especially  from  the  subsequent  circumstances 

3  A  Treatise  en  Man,  his  Intellectual  Faculties,  and  his  Education.  Trans- 
lated by  Hooper,  a  vols.  8vo.  1777. 

t   Outlines  of  an  Historical  Vieiv  of  the  Progress  of  the  Human  Mind.   8  VO. 

*19S- 

V   Inquiry  concerning  Political  Justice,  second  Edit.  2  Vols.  8vo.  I796. 

w  It  is  not  meant  to  be  asserted  that  all  these  writers  agree  with  respect  to 
the  details  of  their  several  systems ;  but  that  they  concur  in  asserting  the  om- 
nipotence of  education,  and  the  perfectibility  of  man. 

iv  Some  of  those  who  profess  a  belief  in  the  perfectibility  of  man  appear 
to  be  in  doubt  with  respect  both  to  the  immateriality  and  immortality  of  the 
soul.  They  are  so  busied  about  the  improvement  of  man  in  this  world, 
that  they  have  little  time,  and  less  inclination  to  bestow  a  thought  on  his 
destiny  and  prospects  in  that  which  is  to  come, 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  29 

and  education  of  the  individual;  that  by  means  of 
the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  the  adoption  of 
better  principles  and  modes  of  education,  the  im- 
provement of  man  in  intellect,  in  virtue,  and  in 
bappiness,  will  go  on  to  an  illimitable  extent;  that, 
at  length,  mind  shall  become  "  omnipotent  over 
matter,"  perfect  enjoyment  assume  the  place  of 
present  suffering,  and  human  life,  instead  of  being 
bounded  by  a  few  years,  be  protracted  to  immor- 
tality, or  at  least  to  an  indefinite  duration. 

This  system  is  unsupported  by  any  facts;  it  is 
contrary  to  all  the  experience  of  mankind;"  it  is 
opposed  to  every  principle  of  human  nature,  and  it 
is  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  to  the  plainest  dic- 
tates of  Revelation .  That  man  may,  and  probably 
will,  make  great  improvements  hereafter,  in  sci- 
ence and  art,  is  readily  admitted.  That  we  can- 
not presume  to  assign  the  bounds  of  this  improve- 
ment, is  also  admitted.  But  that  there  will  be 
absolutely,  no  bounds  to  it,  or,  which  is  the  same 
thing  as  to  the  argument,  that  it  will  go  on  be- 
yond all  assignable  or  conceivable  limits,  is  to  sup- 
pose the  constitution  of  man  essentially  changed, 
his  present  wants,  habits,  and  mode  of  subsistence 
totally  superseded,  and  a  nature  conferred  upon 
him  wholly  different  from  that  which  his  Creator 
gave  him.  But  as  the  doctrines  held  by  the  advo- 
cates of human  perfectibility  become  still  more  im- 
portant when  considered  with  respect  to  their 
moral  and  political  application,  the  further  consi- 
deration of  their  extravagance,  weakness,  and  in- 
consistency, and  the  injurious  consequences  arising 


x  It  is  somewhat  curious  that  many  of  those  who  adopt  the  opinion  con- 
cerning man  which  is  here  opposed,  believe,  at  the  same  time,  that  this 
world  has  existed  from  eternity.  If,  amidst  eternal  revolutions,  and  eter- 
nal progress,  mankind  have  not  yet  risen  above  the  grade  at  which  we 
now  behold  them,  there  seems  little  encouragement  to  hope  for  any  thing 
like  what  they  anticipate  in  future. 


30  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

from  their  adoption,  will  be  attended  to  in  a  sub- 
sequent part  of  this  sketch/ 

During  the  last  age,  several  detached  parts  of 
the  philosophy  of  mind  have  been  illustrated  in  a 
manner  greatly  superior  to  the  attempts  at  expla- 
nation made  in  former  periods.     Perhaps  there  is 
no  subject  to  which  this  remark  more  forcibly  ap- 
plies than  to  the  great  question  of  Liberty  and  Ne- 
cessity, which,  through  so  many  successive  ages, 
has  served  to  puzzle  the  acutest  metaphysicians. 
Never,  probably,  was  any  point  more  largely,  ably, 
and  profoundly  discussed.     The  writings  of  Leib- 
nitz, Collins,  Hume,  Hartley,  Priestley,  and 
Belsham,  on  the  side  of  moral  necessity;  and  of 
Clarke,  Butler,  Reid,  Beattie,  De  Luc,  Gre- 
gory, and  Horsley,  in  favour  of  liberty,  are  well 
known,  and  form  very  important  materials  in  the 
metaphysical  history  of  the  age.     But  the  greatest 
work  which  the  century  produced  on  this  subject, 
and  certainly  among  the  ablest  ever  written  on 
any  department  of  philosophy,  is  that  by  the  ce- 
lebrated American  Divine,  Mr.  Jonathan  Ed- 
wards, for  some  time  President  of  the  College  of 
New-Jersey.     This  gentleman  wrote  on  the  side 
of  moral  necessity,  or  against  the  self-determining 
power  of  the  will;  and   investigated  the  subject 
with  a  degree  of  originality,  acuteness,  depth,  pre- 
cision, and  force  of  argument,  which  the  accurate 
reader  cannot  contemplate  but  with  astonishment. 
It  will  not  be  said  that  he  has  brought  to  an  issue  a 
controversy,  which  will  probably  last  as  long  as 
men  exist  on  earth;  but  that  he  has  thrown  much 
new  light  on  the  subject  will  be  questioned  by 
none ;  and  that  he  has  approached  as  near  to  a  de- 

y  Some  further  remarks  on  this  delusive  system  will  also  be  found  under 
the  head  of  Education,  in  the  present  volume.  But  in  the  third  division  of 
the  work,  in  which  it  is  proposed  to  take  a  view  of  che  moral  principles  and 
establishments  of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  more  particular  consideration 
of  it  will  be  attempted. 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  3 1 

monstratlon,  that  the  doctrine  of  moral  necessity 
(as  explained  and  guarded  by  him)  is  the  only  scrip- 
tural and  philosophical  doctrine  on  this  subject,  as 
the  nature  of  such  inquiries  admits,  is  certainly  the 
opinion  of  some  of  the  best  judges  in  every  part 
of  the  literary  world/  The  extremes  to  which 
the  system  of  the  venerable  President  has  been 
carried  by  several  subsequent  writers,  and  the  con- 
sequences deduced  from  it,  were  far  from  being- 
recognized  by  him;  and  with  respect  to  some  of 
them,  they  are,  beyond  all  doubt,  illegitimately 
drawn. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  our  great  country- 
man, Mr.  Edwards,  appears  to  have  been  the  first 
Calvlnlst  who  avowed  his  belief  so  fully  and  tho- 
roughly in  the  doctrine  of  moral  necessity  as  his 
book  indicates.  Though  all  Calvinistic  writers  be- 
fore his  time  were  characterized  by  a  firm  ad- 
herence to  the  doctrine  of  Predestination;  yet 
they  seem,  for  the  most  part,  to  have  adopted  a 
kind  of  middle  course  between  his  creed  and  that 
of  the  Arminian  contingency.  The  penetrating 
and  comprehensive  mind  of  Edwards  went  fur- 
ther; demonstrated  that  this  middle  ground  was 
untenable,  and  presented  a  more  clear  and  satis- 
factory view  of  the  doctrines  of  free  grace,  when 
contemplated  through  the  medium  of  his  main  doc- 
trine, than  had  ever  before  been  given/ 

That  class  of  philosophers  who  taught  that  the 
soul  was  material,  were,  until  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, generally  ranked  among  infidels,  and  in  most 


z  Soon  after  the  publication  of  President  Edwards's  celebrated  work 
on  the  Will,  he  received  the  thanks  of  several  Professors  of  the  Universities 
of  Holland,  and  of  other  gentlemen  of  distinction,  in  various  parts  of  Eu- 
rope, for  having,  in  their  opinion,  thrown  more  light  on  the  subject  than 
all  preceding  writers.  This  publication  has  long  been  considered  and  quoted 
as  a  standard  work  on  the  side  of  this  question  which  it  is  designed  to  de- 
fend. 

a  Sec  his  Inquiry  into  the  Freedom  of  the  Willy  &c.  passim. 


32  Philosophy  of  the  Hitman  Mind. 

instances,  really  deserved  this  character.  Hence  a 
materialist  has  been  commonly  considered  as  a  de- 
nomination tantamount  to  a  charge  of  atheism  itself, 
or  at  least  of  criminal  indifference  to  religion.  The 
Christian  world,  accustomed  to  connect  this  tenet 
with  such  heresies  as  those  of  Spinoza,  Hobbes, 
Collins,  and  others,  of  a  similar  character,  natu- 
rally concluded,  that  a  belief  in  immaterialism 
necessarily  flowed  from  a  belief  in  Christianity. 
The  last  age  is  distinguished  by  the  adoption  of 
this  anti-christian  error,  by  some  who  profess 
to  embrace  the  Christian  faith.  Among  these 
the  most  conspicuous  and  active  is  Dr.  Priestley/ 
who  maintains  that  "  man  does  not  consist  of  two 
substances  essentially  different  from  each  other; 
but  that  the  conscious  and  thinking  principle,  or 
what  we  generally  term  the  soul,  is  merely  a  pro- 
perty resulting  from  a  peculiar  organical  structure 
of  the  brain."  On  this  principle  he  attempts  to 
show  that  the  idea  of  the  natural  immortality  of 
the  soul  is  wholly  fallacious;  that  the  properties  of 
sensation  and  thought,  and  of  course  all  the  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  of  the  thinking  part  of 
our  nature,  must  be  extinguished  by  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  organized  mass  in  which  they  exist; 
and  therefore  that  the  only  reason  which  men  have 
to  expect  a  state  of  consciousness  or  enjoyment 
hereafter,  is  derived  from  the  scripture  doctrine 
of  the  resurrection.  In  former  parts  of  this  work 
the  services  of  Dr.  Priestley  in  the  physical  sci- 
ences have  been  mentioned  with  high  respect,  and 
with  frequently  repeated  tributes  of  applause.  It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  so  much  of  what  he  has 
written  on  the  philosophy  of  mind,  and  almost  the 
whole  of  his  writings  on  the  subject  of  theology, 
should  be  so  radically  erroneous,  and  so  subversive 

b  Disquisitions  concerning  Matter  and  Spiriti  and    Correspondents  betviewi 
Price  £nd  Priestley. 


Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  33 

of  all  the  interests  of  evangelical  truth  and  prac- 
tical piety. 

The  controversy  respecting  the  immateriality  of 
the  soul  between  Dr.  Clarke  and  Mr.  Collins, 
and  many  years  afterwards  between  Dr.  Price  and 
Dr.  Priestley,  forms  a  very  important  part  of 
the  metaphysical  history  of  the  period  in  which 
they  lived;  and  probably  furnishes  some  of  the 
most  luminous  views  of  this  interesting  controversy 
that  were  ever  presented  to  the  world.  Some  of 
the  immaterialists  of  this  age,  such  as  Dr.  Clarke, 
Dr.  Price,  and  others,  maintained,  that  the  mind 
has  one  property,  viz.  extension,  in  common  with 
matter,  and,  consequently,  that  it  occupies  space, 
and  has  a  proper  locality,  or,  as  the  schoolmen  ex- 
press it,  ubiety ;  while  others,  such  as  Dr.  Watts, 
perhaps  more  consistently  and  philosophically  sup- 
posed, that  mind  has  no  common  property  with 
matter;  that  it  is  inextended,  does  not  occupy 
space,  and  has  no  proper  locality.17 

The  celebrated  dispute  between  the  Nominalists 
and  Realists,  which  perplexed  the  schoolmen  for 
so  many  ages/  and  which  all  their  acuteness  was 
not  able  to  terminate,  was  carried  on  with  great 
warmth,  under  different  names,  and  with  some 


c  See  Correspondence  between  Price  and  Priestley;  and  aho/Ekmcnts  of 
the  Philosophy  of  Mind,  by  T.  BEL3HAM. 

d  The  Realists  followed  the  doctrine  of  Aristotle  with  respect  to  uni- 
versal ideas.  They  taught  that  previous  to,  and  independent  on  matter, 
there  were  no  universal  ideas  or  essentes ;  but  that  the  ideas  or  exemplars, 
which  the  Platonists  supposed  to  have  existed  in  the  Divine  mind,  and  to* 
have  been  the  models  of  all  created  beings,  had  been  eternally  impressed 
upon  matter,  and  were  coeval  with,  and  inherent  in,  their  objects.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Nominalists,  who  embraced  the  doctrine  of  Zeno  and  the 
Stoics,  insisted,  in  opposition  both  to  the  Aristotelians  and  Platonists,  that 
these  pretended  universals  had  neither  fortn  nor  essence,  and  were  no  more 
than  mere  terms,  or  nominal  representations  of  their  particular  objects. 
The  doctrine  of  Aristotle  chiefly  prevailed  until  the  eleventh  century, 
when  Rose eli nus  embraced  the  Stoical  system,  and  founded  the  sect  of 
the  Nominalists,  whose  opinions  were  propagated  with  great  success  by 
Abelard.  These  two  sects  frequently  disputed  and  divided  into  inferior 
parties  among  themselves. 

VOL.  II.  F 


34  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind. 

new  modifications,  through  the  whole  of  the  last 
century.  And  though  still  far  from  being  con- 
cluded, yet  probably  there  was  never  so  much 
light  thrown  on  the  question  in  any  preceding  pe- 
riod. Of  those  who  maintained  the  doctrine  of 
the  Realists,  it  is  believed  that  Mr.  Harris,  Dr. 
Price,  and  Lord  Monboddo  Were  among  the  most 
eminent ;  while  the  system  of  the  Nominalists  was 
espoused  and  defended,  with  great  ingenuity,  by 
Bishop  Berkeley,  Mr.  Hume,  Dr.  CAMPBELL,Pro- 
fessor  Stewart,  and  many  others.  Mr.  Locke* 
Dr.  Reid,  and  a  few  more  under  the  name  of  Con- 
ceptualists,  adopted  a  kind  of  middle  course  be- 
tween these  far-famed  disputants. 

Besides  the  writers  on  the  general  philosophy  of 
mind,  or  on  particular  parts  of  this  science,  whose 
names  have  been  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  pages, 
a  number  of  others  are  entitled  to  notice  in  the 
metaphysical  history  of  the  last  age,  as  having  ei- 
ther written  professedly  on  the  subject,  or  inter- 
woven much  matter  relating  to  the  philosophy 
of  mind  in  the  discussion  of  theological,  moral, 
and  literary  subjects.  Among  these  Bishop  But- 
ler, Dr.  Hutcheson,  Mr.  Grove,  Dr.  Camp- 
bell, Dr.  A.  Smith,  Mr.  Tucker/  and  Mr.  Al- 
lison, of  Great-Britain;  Beausobre,  Condillac, 
and  many  more,  of  France;  Lossius,  Tetens,  Fe- 
der,  Kruger,  and  Mendlesshom,  of  Germany; 
Crouzaz,  LeClerc,  Bonnet,  and  several  others, 
of  Geneva;  and  a  much  longer  list  which  might 

i  See  The  Light  of  Nature  Pursued,  by  Edward  Search,  Esq.  7  vols. 
8vo.  1768,  1778.  The  real  author  of  this  work  was  Abraham  Tucker, 
Esquire.  It  contains  much  new,  curious  and  highly  interesting  dicussioti 
on  metaphysical  and  moral  subjects.  Of  Mr.  Tucker,  Dr.  Paley,  in  the 
preface  to  his  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy,  speaks  in  the  following  terms : 
"  I  have  found  in  this  writer  more  original  thinking  and  observation  upon 
the  several  subjects  that  he  has  taken  in  hand,  than  in  any  other,  not  to 
say,  than  in  all  others  put  together.  His  talent  for  illustration  is  unri- 
valled. But  his  thoughts  are  diffused  through  a  long,  various,  and  irregu- 
lar work."  « 


Classic  Literature.  35 

be  selected  from  different  parts  of  Europe,  are  en- 
titled to  respectful  distinction/  Indeed,  the  con- 
nection is  so  close  between  the  philosophy  of  mind 
and  moral  science,  that  every  systematic  writer  on 
the  latter  subject  has,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
treated  of  the  former.  This  will  more  fully  appear, 
when  we  come,  in  a  future  division  of  the  present 
work,  to  take  a  view  of  the  various  moral  systems 
which  have  obtained  currency,  or  excited  atten- 
tion in  the  last  age. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

CLASSIC    LITERATURE. 

AT  the  revival  of  learning  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, Classic  Literature,  or  the  study  of  the  best 
ancient  writers  of  Greece  and  Rome,  was  an  ob- 
ject of  primary  and  enthusiastic  attention  among 
the  literati  of  Europe.  The  remains  of  those 
writers  were  sought  with  avidity,  and  studied 
with  persevering  diligence.  Criticisms  and  com- 
mentaries upon  them  abounded.  To  gain  posses- 
sion of  a  classic  manuscript;  to  remove  an  ob- 
scurity in  an  ancient  text;  or  to  propose  a  new 
reading,  was  then  considered  among  the  most 
honourable  and  useful  of  all  literary  achievements. 
At  that  time  he  who  could  lay  ciaim  to  the  cha- 
racter of  an  adept  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues 
was,  of  course,  a  great  and  learned  man;  while, 

/  With  the  writings  of  the  greater  part  of  the  metaphysicians  above 
mentioned,  which  belong  to  the  continent  of  Europe,  especially  those  ef 
Germany,  the  author  knows  little  but  by  report ;  it  will  not,  therefore,  bo 
expected  that  he  should  deliver  any  formal  statements  or  opinions  concern^ 
ing  their  doctrines. 


36  Classic  Literature. 

witjiout  this,  however  solid,  extensive  and  valu- 
able his  knowledge  of  other  subjects,  no  one  could 
be  rescued  from  the  charge  of  barbarous  and  con- 
temptible ignorance.  In  a  word,  instead  of  con- 
sidering classic  literature  as  a  means  of  obtaining 
more  important  knowledge,  the  directors  of  pub- 
lic taste,  at  that  period,  unwisely  erected  it  into 
an  ultimate  end,  and  taught  their  followers  to  con- 
sider it  as  the  most  worthy  object  of  pursuit,  to 
all  who  were  ambitious  of  becoming  learned. 
This  was  an  improper  extreme.  The  more  judi- 
cious had  just  cause  to  lament  that  such  a  dispro- 
portionate share  of  regard  was  bestowed  on  lan- 
guage, to  the  neglect  of  studies  more  important 
and  immediately  practical. 

This  error  began  to  be  corrected  about  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  At  this 
period,  brilliant  discoveries  in  natural  philosophy 
began  to  arrest  the  attention  of  the  learned  world, 
and  the  physical  sciences  in  general  became  more 
objects  of  regard.  But  this  decline  of  classic  li- 
terature was  gradual.  One  error  was  not  imme- 
diately exchanged  for  its  opposite.  The  Latin 
language  was  now  generally  employed  as  a  me- 
dium of  publication  in  science;  and  although  it 
had  come  to  be  generally  considered  in  its  proper 
light,  as  a  means  rather  than  an  end;  yet  both  this 
and  the  Greek  were  generally  and  deeply  studied 
by  all  who  had  a  taste  for  letters,  or  aspired  to  dis- 
tinction in  knowledge. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
study  of  the  ancient  languages  was  still  esteemed 
an  essential  part  of  liberal  education.  It  was  then 
the  habit  of  the  learned  not  only  to  write  and  speak 
the  Latin  tongue  with  the  greatest  facility;  but 
they  also  still  employed  it  as  a  medium  for  con- 
veying the  result  of  their  philosophical  labours 
throughout  the  literary  world ;  and  most  of  those 


Classic  Literature.  37 

who  laid  claim  to  the  character  of  scholars,  had 
an  extensive  and  accurate  acquaintance  with  Gre- 
cian literature.  In  both  these  respects  the  eigh- 
teenth century  produced  a  singular  revolution. 
The  Latin  language  has  in  a  great  measure  ceased 
to  be  that  familiar  medium  ot  conversation  and  of 
writing,  among  the  learned,  that  it  once  was;  and 
the  Greek,  though  nominally  retained,  as  a  branch 
of  study  in  modern  seminaries  of  learning,  has  be- 
come almost  unknown  even  to  the  liberally  edu- 
cated. A  belief  is  daily  becoming  more  prevalent 
and  popular  that  the  time  bestowed  on  the  acqui- 
sition of  these  languages,  if  not  entirely  wasted, 
might  at  least  be  more  usefully  employed.  This 
belief,  of  course,  has  had  considerable  influence 
on  modern  plans  of  education.  And  although  in 
a  few  of  the  ancient  European  seats  of  learning, 
some  portion  of  the  former  zeal  for  classic  litera- 
ture still  remains;  yet  even  in  these  a  considerable 
decline  from  their  wonted  eminence  is  plainly  vi- 
sible; and  in  by  far  the  larger  number  the  decline 
is  great,  humiliating,  and  evidently  on  the  in- 
crease. 

The  vernacular  tongue,  it  is  believed,  first  be- 
gan to  be  employed  in  works  of  science,  to  the  re- 
jection of  the  Latin,  in  Italy.  From  that  country 
the  practice  made  its  way  into  France,  and  soon 
became  general.  Great-Britain  was  the  next,  in 
order,  to  adopt  this  innovation,  which  was  ad- 
mitted last  of  all  into  Germany  and  Holland.  At 
the  present  day  the  number  of  books  published  in 
any  other  than  the  living  languages  is  extremely 
small. 

In  America  the  decline  of  classic  literature  is  es- 
pecially remarkable  and  prevalent.  Many  of  our 
colleges  require  in  their  students  but  a  superficial 
acquaintance  with  the  Latin  language;  and  with 
respect  to  the  Greek,  are  contented  with  a  smat- 


38  Classic  Literature. 

tering  which  scarcely  deserves  the  name  of  know- 
ledge. And  although  in  others,  laudable  exer- 
tions have  been,  and  continue  to  be  made,  for 
retaining  to  some  profitable  extent  this  part  of 
education,  yet  the  popular  prejudice  against  it  is 
strong  and  growing;  and  there  is  too  much  reason 
to  fear  that  this  prejudice  will,  at  no  great  distance 
of  time,  completely  triumph/ 

The  causes  of  this  revolution  are  various.  Since 
the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
physical  sciences  have  been  gradually  extending 
their  bounds,  demanding  more  attention,  and  ac- 
quiring greater  ascendency.  As  the  objects  of 
study  multiplied,  a  less  degree  of  leisure  was  left 
for  any  particular  pursuit.  The  splendour  of  seve- 
ral new  branches  of  philosophy,  as  they  success 
sively  rose  into  view,  attracted  the  studious,  and 
gave  a  new  turn  to  fashion.  Hence  those  who 
employed  themselves  in  the  illustration  of  the  clas- 
sics, in  the  settlement  of  various  readings,  or  in  mak- 
ing themselves  masters  of  those  venerable  remains 
of  antiquity,  soon  sunk  in  popular  esteem.  It  be- 
came fashionable  to  represent  them  as  persons  void 
of  taste;  as  is  word  catchers,  that  lived  on  sylla- 
bles;" as  far  below  the  votaries  of  science  in  dig- 
nity. This  ridicule  sensibly  diminished  the  public 
respect  for  classic  literature,  and  still  continues  to 
operate  with  undiminished  force, 

g  While  a  great  fondness  prevails  in  the  United  States  for  giving  young 
men  a  College  education,  and  obtaining  for  them  the  usual  academic  honour 
qf  a  diploma,  there  is  also  a  prevailing  disposition,  not  only  among  the 
youth  themselves,  but  also  among  parents  and  guardians,  to  give  them  as 
small  a  portion  of  classic,  and  especially  of  Greek  literature,  as  possible. 
Against  this  latter  language,  it  seems,  particular  hostility  is  denounced, 
And  in  some  of  our  colleges  it  requires  the  exertion  of  all  the  authority 
vested  in  the  immediate  instructors,  and  the  governors,  to  prevent  popular 
ignorance  and  prejudice  from  expelling  the  study  of  Greek  from  their  plans 
of  education.  This  is  a  circumstance  which  threatens  much  evil  to  the  in- 
terests of  literature  in  our  country  ;  and  unless  the  trustees  and  other  ofr 
ficers,  to  whom  the  direction  of  our  seminaries  of  learning  is  entrusted, 
combine  to  oppose  the  plausible  but  delusive  literary  heresy,  another  genen 
jration  will  witness  the  most  unhappy  effects  arising  from  its  prevalence. 


Classic  Literature,  39 

Another  cause  which  has  doubtless  contributed 
to  produce  the  effect  in  question  is,  the  incon- 
ceivable enlargement  of  the  sphere  of  enterprise 
and  activity  which  the  past  age  exhibited.  New 
objects  of  profit  and  pleasure  have  arisen,  and  en- 
gaged the  public  mind)  new  fields  of  labour  and 
adventure  have  been  thrown  open ;  and,  of  course, 
in  calculating  an  education  for  active  life,  the  re- 
finements of  ancient  literature  began  to  receive  a 
smaller  share  of  regard.  To  which  may  be  added, 
that  the  increased  intercourse  of  mankind,  on  the 
one  hand,  by  bringing  several  living  languages 
more  into  use,  necessarily  diverted  a  share  of  at- 
tention from  the  ancient;  and,  on  the  other,  by 
rendering  the  study  of  various  modern  tongues 
more  easy  and  useful,  took  away  one  important 
argument  in  favour  of  a  learned  language  as  a  me- 
dium of  general  intercourse. 

It  must  be  admitted,  that  this  manifest  decline 
of  classic  literature  has  been  attended  with  some 
advantages.  In  consequence  of  discarding  dead 
languages,  as  the  ordinary  medium  of  philosophi- 
cal publications,  such  writings  have  become  more 
accessible  and  popular;  the  student  has  more  time 
left  for  becoming  acquainted  with  his  vernacular 
tongue;  the  attention  of  the  learned  is  more  di- 
rected to  moral  and  physical  sciences;  the  youth 
destined  for  active  life  is  no  longer  condemned  to 
waste  his  days  by  devoting  them  to  objects  which 
are,  to  him  at  least,  of  subordinate  importance. 
In  a  word,  the  gradual  disuse  of  what  are  called 
learned  languages,  may  be  regarded  as  an  im- 
portant branch  of  the  system  of  those  who  con- 
sider the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  as  a  de- 
sirable object;  and  who  wish  to  make  every  part 
of  it  as  popular  as  possible.  There  are  few  things 
more  directly  calculated  to  break  down  the  "  wall 
of  partition"  between  the  literary  and  the  other 


40  Classic  Literature. 

classes  of  citizens,  and  to  render  liberal  informa- 
tion the  common  portion  of  all  ranks  in  the  com- 
munity, than  making  living  languages  the  only 
means  of  intercourse,  and  removing  the  necessity 
of  acquiring  any  other. 

But  if  some  advantages  have  attended  the  de- 
cline of  classic  literature;  if  it  have  produced  a 
greater  diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  favoured  the 
progress  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  there  is,  per- 
haps, reason  to  doubt  whether  it  has  not  pro- 
duced more  and  greater  evils.  It  has  rendered  the 
intercourse  between  learned  men  more  difficult, 
for  want  of  a  common  medium.  It  has  produced 
a  necessity  to  consume  more  time  in  the  acqui- 
sition of  various  modern  languages.  And,  what 
is  of  no  less  consequence,  it  has  caused  some  of 
the  best  and  most  precious  works  of  antiquity  to 
be  little  known  at  the  present  day,  and  of  conse- 
quence to  be,  in  a  great  measure,  lost  to  the  world. 

It  has  been  asserted,  by  the  ablest  philologists, 
that  the  knowledge  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
writers  has  a  most  important  influence  in  pro- 
moting literary  taste.  Those  writers  display  ex- 
cellences with  respect  to  the  structure  and  polish 
of  language,  which,  it  seems  to  be  generally  agreed, 
are  unrivalled  in  the  annals  of  composition.  To 
study  these  excellences  has  a  natural  tendency  to 
render  the  mind  familiar  with  the  philosophy  of 
grammar,  and  to  inspire  it  wTith  a  taste  for  the  re- 
finements of  eloquence.  It  has  a  tendency  to  form 
in  the  student  a  capacity  to  discern,  and  a  solici- 
tude to  attain  the  purity,  the  precision,  and  the 
graces  of  speech.  Perhaps  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  a  man  can  possibly  understand  any  one 
modern  language,  in  its  various  inflections,  beauties, 
and  shades  of  meaning,  without  having  some  ac- 
quaintance with  those  ancient  tongues.  Certain 
it  is,  that  almost  the  whole  of  that  invaluable  mass 


Classic  Literature.  4% 

hf  instruction  on  this  subject,  to  be  derived  from 
etymological  inquiries,  depends  on  such  an  ac- 
quaintance, and  must  be  commensurate  with  its 
extent.  Hence  it  is  supposed,  by  some  of  the 
most  judicious  literary  historians,  that  the  high  es- 
timate set  on  classical  literature,  and  the  enthusi- 
astic attention  paid  to  it,  until  within  a  few  years 
past,  may  be  considered  among  the  principal 
causes  of  that  rapid  improvement  in  several  Eu- 
ropean languages,  which  distinguishes  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries.  By  diligently 
studying  the  ancient  models  of  composition,  and 
habitually  referring  to  them  as  standards,  the  lite- 
rati of  those  days  were  enabled  to  transfuse  their 
beauties  into  the  living  languages;  to  give  the 
latter  a  large  portion  of  the  copiousness,  regularity, 
and  numerous  excellences  of  the  former;  and  to 
convert  them  from  that  miserably  defective  and 
barbarous  state  in  which  they  were  found,  to  a  de- 
gree of  richness  and  refinement  bordering  on  rival- 
ship  with  their  admired  patterns. 

If  these  facts  and  reasonings  be  admitted,  it 
would  seem  to  follow,  that  the  same  course  of 
studies  which  contributed  so  much  to  raise  modem 
languages  to  their  present  refined  and  improved 
state,  must  also  be  considered  as  useful,  if  not  in- 
dispensably necessary  to  the  preservation  and  sup- 
port of  those  excellences  which  they  have  attained. 
The  tendency  of  living  languages  to  fluctuate  and 
change  is  universally  known.  The  intercourse  of 
different  nations;  the  ignorance,  presumption,  and 
affectation  of  authors;  the  gradual  introduction  of 
provincial  barbarisms,  and  many  other  causes,  are 
frequently  found  to  debase  the  purity,  and,  in  no 
small  degree,  to  affect  the  regularity  of  modern 
tongues.  Of  the  mischief  which  has  been  often 
done,  in  these  respects,  even  by  a  single  popular 
writer,  the  annals  of  literature"  furnish  numerous 
vol.  ii,  a 


42  Classic  Literature. 

instances.  It  is  true,  to  possess  a  language  absou 
lutc\)\fixed,  is  neither  possible  nor  desirable.  New 
discoveries  in  science,  new  refinements  in  art,  and 
the  continual  progress  made  in  various  departments 
of  human  knowledge,  call  for  new  words  and 
phrases,  and  necessarily  give  rise  to  many  corres- 
ponding changes,  some  of  which  are  invaluable 
improvements  in  speech.  But  if  left  unrestrained, 
these  innovations  will  be  wantonly  and  injuriously 
multiplied.  Every  unfledged  sciolist  will  assume 
the  office  of  a  reformer.  Additions  and  alterations 
will  no  longer  be  made  conformably  to  the  analogy 
of  the  stock  on  which  they  are  grafted;  and  lan- 
guage will  speedily  degenerate  into  a  corrupt,  ca- 
pricious, and  unintelligible  jargon.  Against  this 
degeneracy,  perhaps,  no  barrier  is  more  effectual 
than  the  study  of  the  ancient  classics,  and  con- 
tinually referring  to  them  as  the  best  standards  of 
literary  taste  which  mankind  possess.  The  most 
illustrious  models  of  English  style  have,  un- 
doubtedly, been  produced  by  those  who  were  in- 
timately acquainted  with  those  classics.  Scarcely 
an  instance  can  be  found  of  an  author  who  was  ig- 
norant of  them,  and  who,  at  the  same  time,  at- 
tained any  high  degree  of  excellence  as  a  writer 
in  his  own  language.  And  if  ever  the  time  should 
come  when  the  polished  tongues  of  antiquity  shall 
cease  to  be  studied  in  our  seminaries  of  learning, 
it  requires  no  spirit  of  prophecy  to  predict,  that 
our  vernacular  language  will  gradually  lose  the  pu- 
rity and  regularity  of  its  proper  idioms;  become 
loaded  with  anomalies  and  meretricious  ornaments; 
and  no  longer  exhibit  that  philosophic  uniformity, 
and  systematic  beauty,  which  are  so  desirable  and 
useful.  It  is  believed  that  the  style  of  some  very 
popular  writers,  within  the  last  thirty  years,  fur- 
nishes a  very  instructive  comment  on  the  foregoing 
ideas,  and  affords  abundant  evidence  of  their  truth. 


Classic  Literature.  4$ 

But  this  subject  may  with  propriety  be  consi- 
dered as  a  matter  of  still  more  serious  concern .  To 
discourage  the  study  of  ancient  languages,  is  to 
discourage  one  important  means  of  supporting  and 
defending  Revelation.  With  what  boldness  would 
every  heresiarch  assail  the  foundation  and  the  pu- 
rity of  our  faith,  if  its  teachers  were  generally  ig- 
norant of  the  original  records  of  truth !  With  what 
confidence  would  unbelievers  triumph,  and  with 
what  manifest  advantages  would  they  be  armed, 
were  the  friends  of  religion  unable  to  appeal  to 
the  primitive  oracles  of  inspiration,  and  to  the 
primitive  witnesses  of  their  authenticity!  To  re- 
commend the  dismission  of  classic  literature,  there- 
fore, from  plans  of  education,  is  not  only  to  de- 
clare war  against  taste  and  sound  learning,  but 
also  to  betray  the  interests  of  evangelical  truth,  and 
put  a  new  weapon  into  the  hands  of  its  enemies. 

No  wise  man,  indeed,  would  think  of  enjoining 
the  acquisition  of  the  dead  languages  upon  every 
youth  who  seeks  a  liberal  education.  To  impose 
such  a  task  upon  those  who  have  no  view  to  any 
of  the  professions  denominated  learned,  or  whose 
circumstances  in  life  leave  little  leisure  from  the 
toil  of  active  pursuits,  would  be  to  make  a  very 
improper  use  of  one  of  the  most  important  portions 
of  life.  But  that  the  acquisition  is  abundantly 
worthy  the  labour  of  making  it,  to  those  who 
have  the  time  and  the  means  necessary  for  the  pur- 
pose ;  that  some  knowledge  on  this  subject  has 
a  tendency  to  meliorate  the  whole  literary  charac- 
ter, even  if  it  be  afterwards  forgotten ;  and  that  the 
prevailing  and  increasing  disposition  to  neglect 
this  department  of  study  ought  to  be  regretted  as 
among  the  fashionable  follies  of  the  age,  would 
seem  to  follow  necessarily  from  the  foregoing  re- 
marks. 


44  Classic  Literature, 

But  notwithstanding  the  declining  state  of  clas- 
sic literature  during  the  eighteenth  century,  this 
period  was  distinguished  by  a  few  events  and  cha- 
racters which  attracted  considerable  attention, 
and  which  are  worthy  of  being  noticed  in  the  pre- 
sent sketch. 

The  labours  of  learned  men,  during  the  age  un- 
der consideration,  to  facilitate  the  acquisition  of 
the  Latin  language,  have  been  numerous  and  use- 
ful. Dictionaries,  Grammars •,  and  other  similar 
works  have  been  executed  on  new  and  improved 
plans,  with  great  diligence,  perseverance  and  suc- 
cess. A  number  of  scientific  publications  have 
been  made  in  this  language,  in  various  parts  of 
Europe,  in  the  course  of  the  century,  which  will 
long  remain  monuments  of  the  learning  and  taste 
of  the  age.  A  few  publications  of  this  description 
have  been  made  in  Great- Britain;  but  by  far  the 
greater  number  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Well 
executed  and  useful  helps  for  acquiring  the  Greek 
language  have  also  been  multiplied  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  have  contributed  to  the  de- 
gree of  cultivation  which  it  received. 

Before  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  it  is  believed,  the  Latin  language  was 
always  taught  by  means  of  grammars  written  in 
the  same  language.  In  other  words,  a  plan  of 
instruction  was  adopted  which  presupposed  the 
knowledge  of  that  which  was  meant  to  be  acquired. 
This  absurd  custom  subjected  youth  to  unnecessary 
labour,  and  burdened  their  memories  with  words 
to  them  altogether  unmeaning.  In  the  course  of 
the  century  a  considerable  improvement  in  this 
respect  rook  place.  Grammars  and  Dictionaries 
in  the  popular  language  became  more  common. 
And  what  is  worthy  of  remark,  in  this  century, 
a  Lexicon  for  enabling  those  who  understand  no 
other  language  than  English,  to  acquire  the  know- 


Classic  Literature.  45 

ledge  of  Greek,  was  for  the  first  time  presented 
to  the  public  by  the  celebrated  Mr.  Parkhurst, 
of  Great-Britain,  whose  learned  and  useful  labours 
for  promoting  the  study  of  the  ancient  languages, 
and  especially  of  those  in  which  the  sacred  volume 
was  originally  written,  are  well  known. 

In  Greek  literature  the  learned  men  of  Holland, 
for  a  considerable  part  of  the  century,  bore  the  palm 
from  the  contending  world.  Among  these,  Shul- 
tens,  Hemsterhuis,  Ruhnkenius,  Valckenaer, 
Lennep,  and  Scheid,  will  long  be  remembered 
with  respect  by  the  friends  of  learning.  The  first 
named  of  these  great  scholars,  the  immortal  Al- 
bert Shultens,  early  in  the  century,  investigated, 
with  singular  erudition  and  aciueness,  the  deriva- 
tion and  structure  of  several  languages,  and  particu- 
larly the  Greek.  He  wTas  followed  by  his  coun- 
tryman, the  celebrated  Tiberius  Hemsterhuis/ 
who  undertook  to  derive  the  whole  Greek  lan- 
guage, various  and  copious  as  it  is,  from  a  few 
short  primitives,  on  a  plan  entirely  new.  His  doc- 
trines were  further  pursued  and  illustrated  by  his 
disciples,  Ludovic  Caspar  Valckenaer/  and 
John  Daniel  Lennep/  who  offered  to  the  world 
many  refined  and  curious  speculations  on  the  sub- 
ject. To  these  succeeded  Everard  Scheid/  a 
disciple  of  the  same  school,  who  wrote  largely  and 
learnedly  on  the  proposed  system  of  derivation, 
but  differed  materially  from  his  preceptor  and  his 
fellow  pupils.  Besides  the  services  rendered  to 
Greek  literature  by  the  great  critics  above  men- 


h  Hemsterhuis  did  not  himself,  it  is  believed,  publish  his  doctrine 
respecting  the  derivation  of  the  Greek  language.  This  was  done  by  his 
disciples. 

i  Vide  Ludovici  CASPARI  Valckenaerii  Observaiioncs,  quibus  via 
munitur  ad  Origines  Grtzcas  Invcstigandas,  et  Lex'uorum  defectus  resarsciendos. 

j  Vide  Joann.  Daniel.  Lennep  De  Analogia  Lingua  Graca,  she  Rw 
fionum  Analogicarum  Lingua  Graces  Expositio. 

i  Vide  Et'jsr.oljgjcujn;   and  Animadversiones  ad  Analogiam  Lingua  Graca, 


46  Classic  Literature. 

tioned,  the  Ellipses  Greece  of  Lambertus  Bos;  the 
Doctvina  Particularum  of  Henry  Hoogeveen;' 
and  the  ingenious  speculations  of  Lord  Monboddo, 
in  his  Origin  and  Progress  of  Language,"1  have  all 
contributed  to  unfold  more  clearly  than  before  the 
etymology,  the  genius,  the  beauties,  and  the  va- 
rious excellences  of  this  ancient  tongue. 

But  the  services  of  these  eminent  critics  have 
not  been  all  stated.  While  they  pursued  further 
.than  their  predecessors,  the  analysis  of  the  Greek 
language,  they  purified  the  Grammar  from  many 
absurdities  and  errors;  they  interpreted  and  amend- 
ed many  passages  in  ancient  authors;  and  contri- 
buted in  various  ways  to  facilitate  and  recom- 
mend the  study  of  those  authors.  And  even 
if  all  their  speculations  respecting  the  analysis  of 
the  language,  and  especially  concerning  the  origin 
and  meaning  of  the  particles,  should  be  judged  to  be 
wholly  unfounded,  which  probably  few  will  suppose 
to  be  the  case,  they  will  doubtless  be  pronounced 
to  have  thrown  much  light  on  the  subjects  which 
they  discussed.  But  a  satisfactory  view  of  their 
ingenious  and  useful  labours  can  only  be  obtained 
by  the  careful  perusal  of  their  numerous  publica- 
tions. 

It  might  have  been  expected,  in  an  age  in  which 
the  intercourse  of  men  was  so  much  extended  as  in 
the  last,  and  in  which  so  many  rich  repositories  of 
ancient  manuscripts  were  for  the  first  time  opened 

/  Doctrina  Particularum  Lingua  Graca,  Auciore  et  Editor e  Henrtco 
Hoogeveen.  2  Tom.  4to.  This  is  a  large,  ingenious,  and  learned 
work,  on  the  origin  and  meaning  of  the  Grtek  Particles.  Lord  Monboddo 
speaks  of  it  in  terms  of  great  respect  and  approbation.  See  his  Origin  and 
Progress  of  Language. 

m  L.ord  iViO-sBODDO  derives  the  whole  Greek  language  from  combina- 
tions in  duads,  of  the  w  wich  the  other  five  vowels,  cc,  e,  <,  o,  v  ;  the  w 
being  always  last :  so  that  aw,  sw,  iw,  cw,  vu>,  are  the  radical  sounds,  from 
which  the  whole  language  is  derived.  It  is  very  remarKable,  that  the 
British  phiklogisc  adop  ed  almost  precisely  the  iame  doctrine  on  this  sub- 
ject whicli  had  been  before  taught,  though  without  his  Knowledge,  by 
Hemstekhuis,  and  his  followers,  of  the  Ley  den  school. 


Classic  Literature,  47 

to  the  inspection  of  the  intelligent  and  the  curious, 
thnt  many  remains  of  ancient  genius,  before  un- 
known, would  have  been  brought  to  light.  Few 
acquisitions,  however,  of  this  kind  have  been 
made  by  the  republic  of  letters.  The  industry  and 
zeal  of  former  times,  in  this  pursuit,  seem  to  have 
left  little  to  be  gained  by  modern  exertions.  The 
small  additions  which  have  been  made  during  the 
last  age,  to  the  classic  treasures  before  possessed  by 
the  world,  may  perhaps  deserve  some  brief  notice. 

It  had  been  long  known  that  a  composition 
bearing  the  title  of  an  Hymn  to  Ceres,  and  ascribed 
to  Homer,  existed  in  the  second  century;  but 
learned  men  considered  it  as  irretrievably  lost.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  this  composition  was  brought 
to  light;  and  what  is  remarkable,  it  was  found  in 
one  of  the  rudest  and  most  unclassical  countries  of 
Europe.  About  the  year  1775  Christian  Fre- 
deric Matthjei,  a  learned  German,  having  been 
invited  to  settle  at  Moscow,  in  Russia,  obtained  ac- 
cess, soon  after  taking  up  his  residence  there,  to  a 
number  of  Greek  manuscripts,  deposited  in  the 
library  of  the  Holy  Synod  in  that  city.  Among 
these  manuscripts  he  found  the  Hymn  to  Ceres 
above  mentioned,  almost  entire,  which  he  sent  to 
his  friend  D.  Ruhnkenius,  of  Leyden,  who,  in 
1780,  committed  it  for  the  first  time  to  the  press, 
accompanied  with  learned  annotations."  It  is,  in- 
deed, far  from  being  certain  that  this  Hymn,  not- 
withstanding all  its  celebrity,  is  really  the  produc- 
tion of  the  immortal  Grecian  bard  to  whom  it  is 
ascribed.0    The  learned  editor  himself  expresses 

n  This  Hymn  was  elegantly  translated  into  English  verse,  and  accom- 
panied with  learned  notes,  by  Richard  Hole,  LL.  B.  8vo.  1781. 

o  It  is  generally  known  that  of  the  other  Hymns  ascribed  to  Homer, 
suspicions  have  been  entertained  that  the  greater  part,  if  net  all,  are  spurious. 
See  on  this  subject  Davidis  Ruhnkenii  Episiola  Critica  in  Homerida- 
rum  Hymnos  et  Hesiodum,  ad  xirimi  clarissimum  JLvdov.  Casp.  Val.c- 
ksnarium,  8vo.  Lug.  Bat.  1749. 


fil  Classic  Literature. 

much  doubt  with  respect  to  this  point.  The  com- 
position, though  exquisitely  beautiful,  is  said  by 
good  judges  to  want  some  of  the  more  striking 
characteristics  of  Homer,  and,  in  particular,  to  be 
deficient  in  that  energy  and  spirit  for  which  he  is 
so  remarkable/ 

Nearly  contemporaneous  with  the  above  men- 
tioned discovery  in  Moscow,  w^as  another  made  in 
Venice,  byM.  Villoison,  a  learned  Frenchman* 
who,  among  many  valuable  manuscripts  which  he 
examined  in  the  Library  of  St.  Mark  in  that  city, 
found  a  very  curious  copy  of  the  Iliad,  made  in  the 
tenth  century,  and  enriched  with  the  notes  and 
scholia,  hitherto  unpublished,  of  sixty  of  the  most 
eminent  critics  of  ancient  times.  Besides  the  notes 
and  scholia,  the  manuscript  was  found  to  con-* 
tain  various  readings,  equally  numerous  and  im- 
portant, drawn  from  the  ancient  editions  of  Ho- 
mer, given  by  Chios,  Cyprus,  Crete,  Marseilles, 
Sinope,  and  Argos;  editions  before  known  only 
by  name,  and  by  some  citations  of  Eustathius. 
This  manuscript  also  exhibits  various  readings 
drawn  from  many  other  editions;  so  that  it  may 
be  emphatically  called  the  Homerus  Variorum 
of  all  antiquity,  and  more  especially  the  Homer 
of  the  famous  school  of  Alexandria.  M.  Vil- 
loison has  since  committed  this  copy  of  the  first 
Epic  poem  to  the  press,  and  thereby  made  an  in- 
estimable present  to  the  lovers  of  Greek  literature. 

To  this  chapter  belongs  also  some  notice  of  an 
event  which  the  classical  scholar  regards  with  no 
small  interest.  Nearly  thirty  years  ago  the  Presi- 
dent De  Brosses,  a  distinguished  philologist  of 
France,  finding,  in  the  course  of  his  researches, 
some  remains  ot  an  History  of  the  Roman  Republic, 


p  Vide  Opnxov  Tju-voc  £i$  Ari[xYir^av :   vel  Komeri  Hymnus  ad  Cererem3 
nunc pri mum  editus  a  Davids  Rvhnkenio.     Lug.  Bat.  8vo.  1780. 


Classic  Literature.  49 

by  Sallust,  which  had  been  supposed  to  be  en- 
tirely lost,  undertook  the  arduous  task  of  restoring 
it.  After  taking  immense  pains  to  collect  all  the 
quotations  which  had  been  made  from  this  precious 
relic,  by  the  ancient  grammarians  and  others,  he 
found  himself  in  possession  of  more  than  seven  hun- 
dred fragments,  which  he  laid  together  with  so 
much  skill  and  patience,  as  to  produce  a  connected 
work,  by  no  means  unworthy  of  the  celebrated  Ro- 
man whose  name  it  bears.  This  work  was  trans- 
lated into  French,  and  published  in  1777,  at  Dijon, 
in  three  volumes  quarto,  under  the  following  title: 
Hisloire  cle  la  Republique  Romaine  dans  les  conrs 
du  v'u.  Siecle,  par  Salluste,  &c.  It  will  be  rea- 
dily supposed,  that  a  production  of  one  of  the 
greatest  historians  of  antiquity*  recovered  in  a 
manner  so  extraordinary,  excited  much  of  the  at- 
tention of  learned  men,  not  only  in  France,  but 
also  throughout  the  literary  world. 

Among  the  numerous  monuments  of  ancient  ge- 
nius, both  in  literature  and  the  arts,  which  were 
dug  out  of  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum,  in  the  course 
of  the  last  age,  there  were  many  hundred  manu- 
scripts, which  excited  high  expectations  among 
the  learned.  Of  these  nearly  eighteen  hundred 
manuscripts,  chiefly  Greek,  have  been  long  de- 
posited in  the  Museum  at  Portici,  belonging  to 
the  King  of  Naples.  But  so  much  trouble  and  ex- 
pense have  attended  all  the  attempts  hitherto  made 
to  unrol  and  decypher  them,  that  the  anticipations 
of  the  curious  have  been  hitherto  but  little  gratified . 
It  is  hoped,  however,  that  better  success  may  at- 
tend future  exertions  in  this  ample  field  of  literary- 
labour.7 

g  In  1802  it  was  announced  to  the  public,  by  a  letter  from  Italy,  that 
a  manuscript  of  some  importance  had  been,  a  short  time  before,  found  in 
the  Museum  at  Portici.  It  seems  the  Prince  of  Wales  lately  requested 
of  the  Court  of  Naples  to  authorise  Mr.  Haiter,  one  of  his  librarians,  to 
examine  the  manuscripts  in  that  museum,  which  were  dug  from  Hercuia- 
VOL.  II.  H 


So  Classic  Literature. 

Many  correct  and  magnificent  editions  of  classic 
authors  have  been  given  to  the  public,  by  learned 
men,  and  literary  institutions,  in  the  course  of  the 
last  age.  These  editions  not  only  present  speci- 
mens of  great  typographical  elegance;  but  many 
of  them  are  also  enriched  with  various  readings, 
faithfully  collected  from  numerous  manuscripts  and 
printed  copies;  and  with  learned  annotations,  of 
great  value  to  the  student.  To  give  a  complete 
list  of  these  editions  in  the  present  brief  sketch  is 
impossible.  A  few  only  of  the  most  remarkable 
can  be  noticed,  and  these  in  a  very  transient 
manner. 

Of  the  Greek  classics,  the  works  of  Homer  were 
edited,  during  this  period,  with  great  splendour, 
by  Wolfius  and  Clarke;  Herodotus,  by  Grono- 
vius  and  Wesseling;  Thucydides,  by  Duker; 
Xenophon  and  Poly 'bias,  by  Ernestus;  Longinus, 
by  Toup;  Demosthenes,  by  Reiske;  Hesiod,  by 
Krebsius,  Bodtni,  and  Loesner;  Pindar,  by 
Heyne;  Euripides,  by  Musgrave;  Sophocles,  by 
Capperonier;  Aristophanes,  by  Kuster  ;  Lucian> 
by  Reitzius,  Hemsterhuis,  and  Gesner;  Plu- 
tarch, by  Reiske;  Theocritus,  by  Reiske  and 
Wharton;  Epictetus,  by  Upton;  Anacreon,  by 
Matt  aire;  JEschylus,  by  Pauw  and  Porson; 
Diodorus  Siculus,  by  Wesseling  ;  Dion  Cassius,  by 
Fabricius  and  Reimarus;  Lysias,  by  Taylor; 
Isocrates,  by  Battie  and  Auger;  and  Callima- 
chus,  by  Bentley  and  Ernestus. 

Of  the  Latin  classics  the  following  editions, 
made,  during  the  period  under  review,  are  worthy 

neum,  that  their  contents  might  he  ascertained.  The  authority  was  granted. 
JVlr.  Haiter  entered  on  the  task  with  great  zeal  and  intelligence  ;  and  soon 
discovered  a  work  of  Epicurus,  entitled,  Of  the  Nature  of  Things,  which 
was  known  only  from  the  mention  made  of  it  by  some  writers  of  antiquity, 
and  which  appears  to  have  served  as  the  basis  for  the  poem  of  Lucretius, 
on  the  same  subject.  At  the  date  of  the  account  a  copy  of  this  manuscript 
was  preparing  for  the  press. 


Classic  Literature.  5 1 

of  particular  notice  :  Virgil,  by  Burmann,  Heyne, 
and  Wakefield;  Horace,  by  Baxter,  Gesner, 
and  Zeunius;  Cicero,  by  Verbergius,  Olivet, 
and  Lallemand;  Livy,  by  Mattaire,  Drak- 
enborch,  Ruddiman,  and  Homer  ;  Tacitus,  by 
Gronovius,  Ernestus,  Brotier,  Grierson' and 
Homer;  Sallust,  by  Homer;  2uintilian,  by  Bit  r. 
mann,  Rollin,  Gesner,  and  Homer;  Lucretius, 
by  Havercamp  and  Wakefield;  Ovid,  by  Bur- 
mann; Lucan,  by  Burmann,  Bentley,  and  Cum- 
berland; Per sius,  by  Casaubon  and  Homer; 
Terence,  by  Bentley ;  Justin,  by  Gronovius; 
Ccesars  Commentaries,  by  Clarke;  Phcedrus  and 
Petronius  Arbiter,  by  Burman;  Pliny,  senior,  by 
Brotier;  Pliny,  junior,  by  Longalius  ;  Tibullus, 
Catullus,  and  Propertius,  by  Vulpius;  Suetonius, 
by  Pitiscus,  Burmann,  and  Oudenorp;  Eutro- 
pius,  by  Havercamp;  Claudian,  by  Gesner ; 
Florus,  by  Duker  and  Fischer  ;  2aintus  Curtius, 
by  Snakenburg;  Aldus  Gellius,  by  Gronovius; 
and  Silius  Italicus,  by  Drakenborch. 

From  the  above  very  imperfect  list  it  appears 
that  classic  literature  has  been  cultivated,  during 
the  last  century,  with  most  zeal  and  success  in 
Germany  and  Holland;  Great-Britain  is,  per- 
haps, entitled  to  the  next  place;  and  afterwards, 
in  succession,  come  France  and  other  countries  on 
the  continent  of  Europe.  Greek  literature  in 
France  was  at  a  low  ebb  during  the  greater  part  of 
the  period  of  this  retrospect,  and  is  still  but  little 
cultivated  in  that  country. 

But  the  eighteenth  century  is  especially  distin- 
guished by  the  number  and  value  of  the  Transla- 

r  Mrs.  Grierson,  an  Irish  lady,  who  was  "possessed  of  singular  eru- 
dition, and  had  an  elegance  of  taste,  and  solidity  of  judgment,  which 
justly  rendered  her  one  of  the  most  wonderful  as  well  as  amiable  of  her 
sex.  Her  Tacitus  is  one  of  the  best  edited  books  ever  delivered  to  the 
world."     See  Harwood's  Vievi  of  the  Classics, 


52  Classic  Literature. 

tions  of  classic  authors  which  it  produced.  The 
Greeks  were  almost,  if  not  entirely  strangers  to 
this  kind  of  literary  labour.  The  Romans  had  a 
few  translations,  but  they  were  little  esteemed, 
and  gained  their  authors  but  small  consideration  in 
the  republic  of  letters.  A  number  of  performances 
of  this  kind  were  produced  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries;  but  in  the  eighteenth  they 
more  than  ever  abounded,  and  attained  a  degree 
of  excellence  altogether  without  example.  A  few 
of  the  most  valuable  of  these  may  be  mentioned, 
without  attempting  to  furnish  a  complete  list. 

The  following  translations  of  Greek  classics  into 
the  English  language,  during  the  late  century,  de- 
serve particular  notice.  The  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of 
Homer,  by  Pope'  and  Cowper;  Herodotus,  by 
Lyttlebury,Beloe,  and  Lampriere;  Thucydides 
and  Xenophon,  by  Smith;  parts  of  the  works  of 
Aristotle,  by  Twining,  Pye,  Ellis,  and  Gillies; 
Lacian,  by  Franklin  and  Carr;  Demosthenes,  by 
Leland;  Epictetus,  by  Carter;'  Plutarch,  by 
Langhorne;  Longbms,  by  Smith;  Polybius,  by 
Hampton;  Isocrates,  by  Gillies;  Is<?us,  by 
Jones;  Hesiod,  by  Cooke;  Theocritus,  by  Pol- 
wthele;  ^Eschylus,  by  Potter;  Sophocles,  by  Pot- 
ter and  Franklin;  Euripides,  by  Potter  and 
Woodhull;  and  Callimachus,  by  Tytler. 

The  translations  of  Roman  classics  during  the 
same  period  were  still  more  numerous.  Of  a  very 
long  list  the  following  may  be  considered  as  a 
specimen.  The  Eneidoi  Virgil  was  presented  in 
an  English  dress  by  Pitt  and  Beresford,  and  the 
Eclogues  and  BhiolitiA  of  the  same  illustrious  Ro- 

j  The  translation  of  the  Iliad  by  Pope  is  pronounced, by  Dr.  Johnson, 
to  be  "  a  poetical  wonder;  a  performance  which  no  age  or  nation  can  pre- 
tend to  equal;  a  work,  the  publication  of  which  forms  a  grand  era  in  the 
history  of  learning."     Life  of  Vote. 

t  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Carter  is  another  instance  of  great  classical  erudi-i 
tion  and  taste  in,  a  female  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


Classic  Literature.  53 

man,  by  Wharton;  the  works  of  Horace,  by 
Smart,  Creech,  Francis,  andBoscAWEN;  Juve- 
nal, by  Mad  an;  Persius,  by  Brewster,  Madan, 
and  Drummond;  Livy,  by  Haye  and  Baker; 
Tacitus,  by  Gordon  and  Murphy;  Luc  an  9  by 
Rowe;"  the  Met  amor  piloses  of  Ovid,  by  Garth, 
Davidson,  and  Clarke  ;  the  Orations  of  Cicero,by 
Guthrie;  and  selections  from  the  same,  by  Dun- 
can; Sallust,  by  Gordon;  the  Commentaries  of 
Cccsar,  byBLADON;  the  Epistles  of  Pliny,  by  Or- 
rery and  Melmoth;  the  Epistles  of  Cicero,  by 
Mel  moth;  the  Epistles  of  Seneca,  by  Morrell; 
Terence,  by  Cooke  and  Colman;  Tibullus,  by 
Grainger;  Aldus  Gellius,  by  Beloe;  and  P hia- 
tus, by  Warner. 

The  translations  made  into  several  of  the  lan- 
guages of  the  continent  of  Europe,  during  the  pe- 
riod under  consideration,  are  numerous  and  re- 
spectable. But  of  these  too  little  is  known  to  at- 
tempt any  thing  like  a  discriminating  selection. 
The  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  Homer  were  ably  trans- 
lated into  German,  by  Voss;  into  Italian,  by 
C.esarotti,"  and  Ceruti  ;  into  French,  by  Roche- 
fort;  and  into  Spanish,  by  ^Ialo.  The  Cyro- 
piedia  of  Xenophon  was  translated  into  French,  by 
Dacier  and  Gail,  and  into  German,  by  Wif.land  ; 
Tliucydides,  into  French,  by  Levesque,  and  Hero- 
dotus, into  the  same  language,  by  Larcker;  the 
Politics  of  Aristotle,  into  French,  by  Champagne; 
Theocritus,  into  the  same  language,  by  Gail;  De- 
mosthenes, also  into  French 5  byTouRREiL;  licsiod, 


v  "  The  version  of  Lrcan"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  is  one  of  the  greatest 
productions  of  English  poetry  ;  for  there  is  perhaps  none  that  so  completely 
exhibits  the  genius  and  spirit  of  the  original.  It  deserves  more  notice  than 
it  obtains;  and  as  it  is  more  read  will  be  more  esteemed." 

u  Several  of  the  translations  above  mentioned,  made  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  are  said  to  possess  first  rate  excellence.  In  particular  those  cf  Voss 
and  CiESAROTTi,  both  poetical,  are  represented  as  having  merit  of  a  supe- 
rior kind. 


54  Oriental  Literature. 

into  German,  by  Schutze;  and  Plutarch,  also 
into  German,  by  Penzel. 

Versions  of  Virgil  were  made,  in  the  period  of 
this  retrospect,  into  Italian,  by  Bendi;  and  into 
German,  by  Voss  and  Spitzenbergen;  of  Horace, 
into  French,  by  Sanadon  and  Darcu;  of  S alius t, 
into  German,  by  Schluter;  and  of  Tacitus,  into 
French,  by  Guerrin,  Bletterie,  and  Dotter- 
ville. 

But  notwithstanding  all  the  labours  of  learned 
men  to  promote  the  knowledge  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  classics,  the  study  of  them  was  almost  uni- 
formly declining  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of 
the  century.  And  in  the  course  of  little  more  than 
two  centuries,  this  kind  of  knowledge,  from  being 
considered  the  most  interesting  and  important  that 
could  occupy  the  attention  of  man,  came  to  be 
regarded,  by  a  large  portion  of  the  literary  world, 
as  among  the  most  useless  objects  of  pursuit. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


ORIENTAL    LITERATURE. 

THE  literature  of  Asia,  the  birth- place  and  cradle 
of  our  species,  where  Philosophy  first  reared  her 
head,  and  whence  Greece  and  Rome  borrowed  a 
large  portion  of  their  knowledge,  cannot  be  other- 
wise than  highly  interesting  to  the  enlightened 
and  inquisitive  mind.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  much  had  been  written,  but 
comparatively  little  was  really  known  concerning 
that   important  part  of  the  globe.     The    works 


Oriental  Literature.  55 

of  Pococke  and  Hyde,  of  Great-Britain ;  ofEii- 
penius  and  Golius,  of  Holland;  and  of  D'Her- 
belot,  Bochart,  Bouchet,  and  others,  of  France, 
toward  the  close  of  the  preceding  century,  had  all 
communicated  to  the  public  much  curious  and  va- 
luable information,  respecting  various  eastern  coun- 
tries, particularly  Arabia,  Persia,  and  some  parts 
of  India.  But  these  works  had  so  limited  a  cir- 
culation, and  the  intercourse  between  Europe 
and  the  East  was  so  small,  that  few  were  excited 
to  pay  much  attention  to  this  branch  of  literature. 
In  Great-Britain,  especially,  during  the  first  half 
of  the  century,  oriental  learning  was  at  a  low  ebb, 
insomuch  that,  during  the  reign  of  George  I.  a 
great  orientalist  was  a  rare  phenomenon  in  that 
country. 

But  in  the  latter  half  of  the  century  under  consi- 
deration, more  encouraging  prospects  began  to 
open.  Indeed,  within  the  last  forty  years,  some 
departments  of  oriental  literature  have  been  cul- 
tivated with  a  fervour  of  zeal,  and  with  a  brilliancy 
of  success,  highly  interesting  and  honourable  to  the 
age.  And  even  in  those  departments  which  have 
been  less  diligently  and  successfully  cultivated, 
some  events  and  characters  have  adorned  this 
period,  which  are  worthy  of  notice  in  the  present 
sketch. 


HEBREW    LITERATURE. 

The  first  place  in  this  chapter  is  clue  to  that  lan- 
guage in  which  it  pleased  infinite  Wisdom  to  re- 
cord and  convey  the  divine  will  to  man.  A  lan- 
guage which,  if  it  be  not  the  most  ancient  in  the 
world,  will  doubtless  be  considered  among  those 
which  have  the  best  claims  to  this  honour.  With 
regard  to  this  language,  though  it  has  been  less 


56  Oriental  Literature. 

studied  through  the  learned  world  in  general,  dur- 
ing the  last  age,  than  in  some  preceding  periods; 
yet  several  events  took  place,  and  a  number  of  im- 
portant publications  were  made  respecting  it, 
which  it  would  be  improper  to  omit  in  the  most 
rapid  survey  of  oriental  learning.™ 

The  controversy  respecting  the  Vowel- Points* 
which  was  begun  in  the  sixteenth  century,  by 
Elias  Levita,  a  learned  Jew,  and  which  was 
pursued  with  so  much  zeal  and  learning,  in  the 
seventeenth,  by  the  Buxtorfs,  Capellus,  "Wal- 
ton,  and  others,  was  continued  in  the  eighteenth, 
and  gave  rise  to  much  interesting  discussion.  Early 
in  the  century  M.  Masclef,  a  Canon  of  Amiens, 
published  his  grammar,  in  which  he  undertook  to 
teach  the  Hebrew  language  without  points/  He 
Vvas  opposed  by  Guarinus,  a  Benedictine  of 
France,  with  great  learning  and  warmth;  but  de- 
fended by  his  countrymen,  the  famous  Father 
Charles  Francis  Houbigant,  M.  De  la  Blet- 
terie,  and  others.     The  system  of  Masclef  ob- 


tu  For  a  number  of  the  facts  and  names  mentioned  in  these  paragraphs 
on  Hebrew  literature,  the  author  is  indebted  to  his  venerable  friend,  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Kunze,  senior  of  the  Lutheran  Clergy  in  the  State  of  New-York, 
and  late  professor  of  Oriental  Languages  in  Columbia  College.  The  va- 
rious acquirements  of  this  gentleman,  and  particularly  his  oriental  learning, 
have  long  rendered  him  an  ornament  of  the  American  republic  of  letters. 
He  has  probably  done  more  than  any  individual  now  living  to  promote  a 
taste  for  Hebrew  literature  among  those  intended  for  the  clerical  profession 
in  the  United  States.  And  though  his  exertions  have  not  been  attended 
with  all  the  success  that  could  have  been  wished,  owing  to  the  want  of 
that  countenance  from  the  public  and  from  individuals  which  is  necessary; 
yet  he  is  doubtless  entitled  to  the  character  of  a  benefactor  of  the  American 
churches. 

x  The  great  questions  concerning  the  Hebrew  Points  respect  their  anti- 
quity and  importance.  The  first  question  is,  whether  they  were  invented  by 
the  Masorites,  a  set  of  learned  Jews,  who  are  supposed  to  have  lived  about 
the  fifth  century  after  Christ,  and  who  are  said,  by  the  addition  of  votvels 
and  accents  to  have  fixed  the  true  reading  of  the  sacred  text;  or  whether 
these  vowels  were  employed  by  those  who  first  wrote  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, and  of  course  made  a  part  of  the  original  writing  of  the  scriptures? 
The  second  question  has  a  respect  to  the  utility  and  importance  of  the  points  ; 
cr  how  far  they  are  necessary  and  useful? 

y   Grammatisa  Hsbraa,  a  punciis  aliisque  Masorethicis  invent  is  libera,  1716. 


Oriental  Literature.  5Y 

tained  general  credit  in  France;  but  the  neater 
number  of  German  and  Dutch  critics  opposed  it. 
In  England  it  was,  with  some  alterations,  espoused 
and  introduced  by  Hutchinson,  who  was  followed 
by  Bate,  and  Parkhurst,  and  more  recently  by 
Professor  Wilson,  of  the  University  of  St.  An- 
drews, in  North-Britain. 

The  antiquity  and  importance  of  the  Points  have 
also  been  maintained,  during  the  period  in  ques- 
tion, by  the  great  Albert  Schultens,  of  Leyden; 
by  the  learned  Professor  James  Robertson,  of 
Edinburgh;  and  by  the  celebrated  orientalist, 
Professor  Tychsen,  of  Germany.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  points  have  found  zealous  opponents  in 
the  same  period,  in  Sharps,  of  Great-Britain;  in 
Dupuy,  a  learned  Frenchman;  and  in  the  cele- 
brated John  David  Michaelis,  of  Germany.* 
The  result  of  this  controversy  seems  to  be  a  general 
impression,  among  those  most  competent  to  judge, 
that  the  points  cannot  boast  of  that  antiquity  which 
Schultens  and  Robertson  would  assign  to  them;* 
but  that  they  were  invented  by  men  deeply  skilled 
in  the  language;  that  they  serve  as  a  good  com- 
mentary, and  are  therefore  of  great  utility,  and 
deserve  to  be  respectfully  regarded. 

In  1136  Bishop  Hare  published  a  plan  for  as- 
certaining and  restoring  the  Hebrezv  Metre}  He 
supposed  that  he  had  revived  the  knowledge  of 
the  true  versification  of  this  language,  and  that 


2  Professor  Michaelis,  In  the  former  part  of  his  life,  was  favourable 
to  the  points ;  but  afterwards  changed  his  opinion.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  stupendous  oriental  scholars  of  the  age,  and  probably  one  of  the 
greatest  that  ever  existed. 

a  Clavis  Pentateuchi:  sivt  Analysis  Omnium  Vocum  Hebraicarumy  &C. 
Auctore  Jacobo  Robertson,  S.  T,  D.  Ling:  Orient,  in  Acad.  Edin.  fro/I 
8vo.  1770. 

*  Psalmorum  Liber,  in  Verskulos  Metrics  divisus,  et  cum  aliis  Cr it  ices  Sub* 
sidus,  turn  pracipus  Metrices  ope,  multis  in  locis  inte^ritati  sua  restitute. 
Edldtt  Franciscvs  Hare,  S.  T.  P.  Episcopm  Ckutrmiu  Tom,  3,  $y., 
1730. 

VOL.    IT,  T 


58  Oriental  Literature. 

he  was  in  possession  of  principles  by  which  it  might 
be  scanned,  like  any  other  poetry,  and  its  rythm 
discovered  with  the  utmost  precision.  He  sup- 
posed that  in  Hebrew  poetry  all  the  feet  consist  of 
two  syllables;  that  no  regard  is  to  be  paid  to  the 
quantity  of  the  syllables;  that  when  the  number  of 
syllables  is  even,  the  verse  is  Trochaic,  and  the  ac- 
cent to  be  placed  on  the  first;  but  that  when 
the  number  is  odd,  the  verse  is  to  be  accounted 
Iambic,  and  the  accent  to  be  placed  on  the  second 
syllable;  that  the  periods  generally  consist  of  two 
Verses,  often  of  three  or  four,  and  sometimes  of  a 
greater  number;  that  verses  of  the  same  period, 
with  few  exceptions,  are  of  the  same  kind;  that 
the  Trochaic  verses,  for  the  most  part,  agree  in 
the  number  of  feet,  but  that  to  this  rule  there  are 
a  few  exceptions;  that  in  the  Iambic  verses  the 
feet  are  in  general  unequal,  though  in  some  in- 
stances it  is  found  to  be  otherwise.  To  accom- 
modate the  sacred  text  to  these  doctrines,  he  in- 
dulged in  many  conjectures  and  fancied  emen- 
dations, which  were  altogether  capricious  and 
unwarrantable/  This  hypothesis  was  generally 
considered,  by  the  most  judicious  critics,  as  a 
fanciful  and  unfounded  speculation.  The  Bishop's 
doctrine  was,  however,  adopted  by  Dr.  Thomas 
Edwards,  of  Great-Britain,  a  contemporary  He- 
brew scholar  of  considerable  reputation.  It  was 
also  adopted  and  carried  to  a  still  greater  length* 
by  Mr.  William  Green,  an  English  clergyman, 
in  his  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms/  But  at  the 
close  of  the  century,  it  is  believed,  this  doctrine 


c  Oomarus,  a  learned  Hebraist  of  Holland,  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, invented  and  taught  an  hypothesis  concerning  Hebrew  Metre,  some- 
what resembling  that  of  Bishop  Hare,  but  not  attended  with  so  many  ar- 
bitrary and  conjectural  emendations  of  the  sacred  text. 

d  A  New  Translation  of  the  Psalms  from  the  Original  Hebrew.  By  Wll' 
Li  AH  Green,  M.  A.  Rector  of  Hardingham,  Norfolk,     cvo.  1 763. 


Oriental  Literature.  5 0 

bad  few  if  any  advocates,  and  had  entirely  ceased 
to  command  public  attention. 

A  much  more  valuable  improvement  in  Hebrew 
literature,  in  the  period  under  consideration,  was 
that  effected  by  the  labour  and  talents  of  Dr. 
Lowth,  Bishop  of  London.  This  profound  and  ele- 
gant scholar,  in  the  year  1753,  published  a  learned 
and  highly  interesting  work  on  Hebrew  Poetry,  in 
which  he  displayed  its  structure,  genius,  beauties, 
and  various  kinds,  more  successfully  than  any  pre- 
ceding writer/  This  great  work,  which  is  re- 
garded by  every  orientalist  as  a  most  important  ac- 
quisition to  the  Hebrew  critical  art,  formed  a 
memorable  era  in  the  investigation  of  the  subject 
of  which  it  treats.  The  Bishop  has  been  followed 
in  this  laudable  and  instructive  inquiry,  by  Her- 
der, a  learned,  ingenious,  and  eloquent  writer  of 
Germany,  who  is  said  to  have  pursued  the  subject 
still  further,  and  to  have  thrown  additional  light  on 
the  spirit  of  Hebrew  poetry. 

The  publication  of  the  works  of  the  celebrated 
John  Hutchinson,  in  Great-Britain,  at  an  early 
period  of  the  century,  doubtless  contributed  some- 
thing to  promote  the  study  of  Hebrew  in  that  coun- 
try. It  was  before  remarked  that  this  philosopher 
and  his  followers  laid  great  stress  on  the  integrity 
of  the  common  Hebrew  text,  and  drew  from  a  fan- 
ciful interpretation  of  Hebrew  words  many  theolo- 
gical and  philosophical  principles,  in  their  view  of 
the  utmost  importance.  This  circumstance,  of 
course,  prompted  all  who  applied  themselves  to 
the  study  of  Hutchinson's  writings,  and  especially 
those  who  studied  them  carefully  and  deeply,  to 
acquire  as  much  Hebrew  learning  as  they  were 


e  Be  Sacra  Poesi  Hebrxorum  Pralectiones  habit*  a  Roberto  Lowth,  &c. 
&c.  4to.  1753-  This  work  has  been  translated  by  the  Rev.  G.  Gregory, 
F.  A.  S.  and  published  in  1787,  in  3  vols,  8vo. 


6Q  -Oriental  Literature, 

able.  Those  who  have  attended  to  the  progress  of 
knowledge  in  Great-Britain  during  the  last  age, 
have  probably  been  able  to  trace  very  distinctly  the 
influence  of  this  visionary  philosophy  in  producing 
the  effect  which  has  been  stated. 

Of  the  great  number  of  Hebrew  grammars  which 
have  been  published  since  the  revival  of  letters, 
that  of  Buxtorf,  till  near  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  had  received  by  far  the  largest 
share  of  public  approbation.  And  though  it  was 
dry,  complicated,  tedious,  and  of  course  difficult 
to  be  acquired;  yet  as  it  was  on  the  whole  well 
constructed,  and  contained  an  excellent  body  of 
masoretical  rules,  it  continued  long  to  be  the  reign- 
ing favourite  among  the  teachers  of  this  language. 
Capellus  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who  made 
a  successful  attempt  to  divest  Hebrew  grammar 
of  its  superfluous  precepts,  and  perplexing  append- 
ages. Since  his  time  the  system  of  simplification 
has  been  carried  still  further  by  Masclef,  and 
many  others,  bot!c  the  advocates  and  opposers  of 
the  points. 

At  an  early  period  of  the  century,  Professor 
Danz,  of  Germany,  published  a  Hebrew  and 
Chaldeac  Grammar,  in  which  he  almost  entirely 
departed  from  the  methods  before  in  use.  Instead 
of  perplexing  the  learner  with  numberless  minuiitf, 
which  are  apt  at  the  beginning  to  disgust  and  dis- 
courage, he  presented  the  elements  of  the  lan- 
guage in  a  simple,  easy,  and  attractive  form. 
The  Danzian  method  soon  became  general,  was 
adopted  as  the  ground  work  in  innumerable  sub- 
sequent grammars,  and  is  yet  the  prevailing  one 
in  the  schools  and  universities  of  Germany.  The 
Hebrew  grammars  produced  in  Great-Britain,  dur- 
ing the  last  age,  were  numerous,  and  a  few  of  them 
highly  valuable.  Out  of  a  Ions;  list  which  might 
he  made,  those  oFFarkhurst,  Robertson,  Gray, 


Oriental  Literature.  $  I 

Wilson,  and  Fitzgerald,  are  entitled  to  parti- 
cular distinction/ 

In  the  eighteenth  century,  for  the  first  time, 
grammars,  dictionaries,  and  other  books,  for  teach- 
ing the  elements  of  the  Hebrew  language,  were 
presented  to  the  public  in  English.  Before  this 
period,  all  such  works  were  in  the  Latin  language, 
and  of  course  the  acquisition  of  this  language,  at 
least,  was  necessary  before  any  thing  could  be 
done  towards  acquiring  the  Hebrew.  In  the  last 
age  this  difficulty  was  removed.  Those  who  are 
acquainted  with  no  other  than  their  native  tongue 
are  now  furnished  with  books,  by  means  of  which 
they  may  be  conveniently  initiated  into  the  know- 
ledge of  Hebrew  literature,  so  far  as  is  necessary 
for  enabling  them  to  peruse  the  sacred  scriptures. 
Mr.  Parkhurst,  it  is  believed,  first  obliged  the 
public  with  a  work  of  this  nature.  His  example 
was  followed  by  his  countryman,  Mr.  Bate;  since 
which  time  the  same  means  for  rendering  Hebrew 
literature  more  accessible,  have  been  adopted  by 
Professor  Wilson,  Professor  Fitzgerald,  and  se- 
veral others. 

Those  who  studied  the  Hebrew  language  in  the 
eighteenth  century  derived  an  advantage  from  the 
circumstance  of  the  other  oriental  dialects,  the 
Syriac,  Chaldeac,  Arabic,  and  even  the  Coptic 
and  iEthiopic,  being  more  and  better  cultivated 
during  this  time  than  in  any  former  period.  The 
aid  furnished  to  the  student  of  Flebrew  by  the 
knowledge  of  these  dialects,  will  be  readiiy  un- 


/  In  the  formation  of  some  of  these  grammars  the  Points  and  Accents  are 
employed ;  in  others  they  are  rejected ;  while,  in  a  third  class,  a  middle 
course  is  pursued  between  a  total  rejection  and  an  unlimited  admission  of 
them.  The  last  is  particularly  the  case  with  the  grammar  of  Dr.  Fitz- 
cjerald,  Professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of  Dublin,  published  in 
1799.  He  retains  the  vowel  points,  and  such  of  the  accents  as  are  most 
distinguishable  and  useful.  All  the  other  accents,  of  which  the  number  is 
considerable,  he  has  discarded. 


62  Oriental  Literature. 

derstood  and  appreciated  by  those  who  have  any 
knowledge  of  the  subject.  The  labours  of  Re- 
land  and  Schultens,  in  Holland;  ofREiNEccEius, 
the  Michaelises/  (especially  the  last  of  that 
name)  Stock,  Eichorn,  Bode,  Storr,  and  Ad- 
ler,  in  Germany;  of  La  Croze,  in  France;  of 
De  Rossi,  in  Italy;  and  of  Durell,  Ridley, 
Woide,  and  White,  in  Great-Britain,  to  illustrate 
these  auxiliary  languages  and  dialects,  or  to  pre- 
sent the  public  with  various  readings,  and  versions 
from  them,  are  well  known,  and  have  often  been 
the  subjects  of  high  praise. 

The  collection  and  collation  of  ancient  Hebrew 
Manuscripts,  which  were  pursued  in  the  eighteenth 
century  to  an  extent  greatly  beyond  any  former  ex- 
ample, may  be  considered  as  among  the  distin- 
guishing honours  of  the  age.  In  1707  Dr.  John 
Mill,  a  learned  English  divine,  published  an 
edition  of  the  New  Testament,  with  the  various 
readings,  collected  from  many  different  manu- 
scripts, to  which  he  had  devoted  the  unwearied 
labour  of  thirty  years.  In  1752  the  celebrated 
Wetstein,  of  Germany,  whose  talents  and  erudi- 
tion are  well  known,  published  a  work  on  the 
same  plan,  but,  as  many  suppose,  executed  with 
greater  judgment.  He,  like  his  predecessor,  ex- 
pended much  time  and  labour  in  his  work,  and 
travelled  into  foreign  countries  to  examine  all  the 
manuscripts  that  could  be  procured.7'     These  pub- 

g  Tn  176a  that  illustrious  orientalist,  John  David  Michaelis,  pub- 
lished a  number  of  curious  and  interesting  questions,  relating  to  Arabic  li- 
terature, which  he  had  directed  to  a  number  of  learned  men,  sent  by  the 
King  of  Denmark  into  Arabia,  and  to  which  he  desired  their  attention. 
These  queries  not  only  led  to  much  inquiry,  and  produced  much  informa- 
tion, from  the  persons  to  whom  they  were  immediately  addressed ;  but  they 
also  led  to  a  more  general  study  of  the  Arabic  language,  as  an  auxiliary  to 
the  Hebrew,  than  had  before  taken  place  in  the  colleges  and  universities  of 
Germany. 

h  The  collations  and  various  readings  of  Mill,  Kugter,  Wetstein, 
Greisbach,  Matthjei,  and  others,  will  be  noticed  more  particularly 
when  the  Literature  of  the  Christian  Church  shall  come  under  consideration^ 
in  the  fourth  and  last  part  of  this  work. 


Oriental  Literature.  6$ 

lications,  together  with  a  conviction  of  its  utility 
and  importance,  animated  Dr.  Benjamin  Ki  n- 
nicot,  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  to  engage 
in  a  similar  undertaking  with  respect  to  the  He- 
brew text  of  the  Old  Testament.  As  early  as  1753, 
by  a  dissertation  on  the  state  of  the  common  printed 
text,  he  called  the  attention  of  the  religious  world 
to  his  design,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  his  great 
wrork.  His  plan  was  no  sooner  announced  than 
he  found  ample  support  both  of  a  pecuniary  and 
literary  kind/  He  collated  more  than  700  manu- 
scripts, obtained  from  different  countries/  besides 
many  printed  copies;  and  was  enabled  from  these 
sources,  to  present  a  very  curious  and  instructive 
amount  of  various  readings.  In  1776  the  first 
volume  of  his  work  appeared,  and  in  1780  the 
second,  which  completed  his  plan,  was  laid  before 
the  world/  Every  lover  of  oriental  literature  must 
feel  himself  under  deep  obligations  to  this  great 
collator,  not  only  for  the  light  which  his  indefa- 
tigable labour  threw  on  the  sacred  Scriptures,  but 
also  for  that  taste  and  zeal  in  Hebrew  literature,  and 
particularly  in  biblical  criticism,  which  his  example 
evidently  and  remarkably  revived  in  Great-Britain/ 

i  The  literary  aid  rendered  to  Dr.  Kennicot,  was  received  from  al- 
most every  part  of  the  Christian  world,  particularly  from  Great-Britain, 
Germany  and  France.  The  pecuniary  aid  with  which  he  was  favoured,  for 
the  prosecution  of  his  plan,  was  derived  chiefly  from  his  own  country,  in 
which  there  was  raised,  hy  subscription,  for  this  purpose,  the  sum  of 
£36,000  sterling,  or  upwards  of  160,000  dollars.  A  degree  of  liberality 
which  reflects  the  highest  honour  on  Great-Britain  and  the  age. 

j  Among  the  great  number  of  manuscripts  examined  by  Dr.  Kennt- 
cot,  there  was  one  from  America.  This  belonged  to  the  family  of  the 
late  Mr.  Solomon  Simson,  of  the  city  of  New-York,  who  sent  it  to  the 
learned  collator  in  1771,  and  had  it  returned  in  1772.  This  manuscript 
is  the  144th  in  Dr.  Kennicot's  list,  under  the  title  of  "  Codex  Americanus 
Neo  Eboraceasis" 

k  Fetus  Testamentam  Hebraicum  cvm  varus  Leciiinibns.  Edidit  Bent. 
Kennicot,  S.  T.  P.  Oxonii.     1776,  1780.     2  vols,  folio. 

/  It  is  certain,  that  since  the  publication  of  Kennicot's  work,  the  study 
of  Hebrew  has  remarkably  revived  in  Great-Britain.  At  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century -it  is  probable  there  was  a  gre?ter  number  of  Hebrew 
fcholars  in  that  country  than  at  any  former  period  within  an  hundri|j  years, 
perhaps  than  ever  before. 


64  Oriental  Literature. 

When  Dr.  Kennicot  began  bis  celebrated  work, 
he  entertained  an  opinion  decidedly  opposed  to 
the  integrity  of  the  common  Hebrew  text  of  the 
Bible.  Bat,  though  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  he  altered  his  opinion  afterwards;  yet  his  la- 
bours certainly  produced  a  conviction  in  the  minds 
of  discerning  and  impartial  men,  entirely  contrary 
to  what  he  expected.  They  confirmed  rather  than 
destroyed  the  general  confidence  in  the  masoretical 
reading;  and  instead  of  subserving  the  cause  of 
infidelity,  or  heresy,  by  unsettling  the  sacred  text, 
as  the  Hutchinsonians  and  some  others  had  pre- 
dicted, their  influence  was  directly  of  an  opposite 
kind. 

Encouraged  by  the  success  of  Dr.  Kennicot, 
and  influenced,  also,  by  the  circumstance  of  his 
having  a  convenient  and  easy  access  to  the  Ambro- 
sian  Library  of  Milan,  John  Bernard  de  Rossi, 
Professor  of  Oriental  Languages  in  the  University 
of  Parma,  undertook  a  similar  work,  which  he 
completed,  and  laid  before  the  world  in  1786/* 
He  collated  many  manuscripts  which  Kennicot 
had  never  seen,  and  added  many  important  read- 
ings to  the  former  treasure.  His  work  may,  there- 
fore, be  considered  a  very  useful  supplement  to 
that  of  his  laborious  predecessor.  The  same  effect 
resulted  from  this  publication  as  from  that  of  Ken- 
nicot. It  tended  to  confirm  the  masoretical  text, 
and  disappointed  the  hopes  of  those  who  wished 
to  unsettle  or  dishonour  it.;i    Drs.  Doederlein  and 


m  Variae  Lectiones  Ceteris  Test  a  mentis  ex  imtxer.sa  JMSS.  editorumque  Codi- 
tum  congerie  baustee,  et  ad  Samar.  Textum  ad  -vetustiss.  versiones,  ad  accuraliorcs 
S.  Criticae  fontes  ac  leges  examinattz,  opere  ac  studio  JoHAN.  Bern.  DE  Rossi, 
S.  T.  P.  et  in  R.  Parmensi  Acad.  Ling.  Ori.  Prof,  torn  iv.  The  author 
speaks  thus  of  his  work,  "  Producuntur  hie  varia  Lcctiones  V.  T.  ex  immensa 
JV1SS.  editorumque  codicum  congerie,  id  est,  ex  mille  quadringentis  septuaginta  et 
amplius  sacri  Tcxius  codicibus^ 

n  Tt  is  well  known  that  in  the  common  Hebrew  Bibles  there  are  remarks, 
or  various  readings  in  the  margin,  called  Keii,  to  distinguish  them  from 
the.  reading  in  the  test,  culled  Gbttil,    The  latter  is,  in  many  places,  cb- 


Oriental  Literature.  63 

Meissner,  of  Germany,  by  selecting  and  publish- 
ing, in  a  cheap  and  convenient  form,  the  most  im- 
portant and  useful  of  the  various  readings  exhibited 
by  Kennicot  and  De  Rossi,  produced  a  work 
which  does  honour  to  themselves,  and  deserves  to 
be  mentioned  as  one  of  the  ornaments  of  the  age.0 
Many  other  publications  were  made,  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  which  facilitated  and  pro- 
moted the  study  of  the  Hebrew  language.  Among 
these  the  Critica  Sacra  of  Edward  Leigh,  an 
English  divine,  and  the  Clavis  Lingua  Sanctce.  of 
Christian  Stock,  a  learned  German,  are  worthy 
of  high  praise.  As  the  seventeenth  century  was 
adorned  by  the  Buxtorfs,  of  Switzerland,  and 
the  study  of  the  oriental  languages  greatly  pro- 
moted by  their  example  and  their  labours,  so  the 
eighteenth  was  rendered  remarkable  by  the  won- 
derful oriental  learning,  and  the  numerous  publi- 
cations on  this  branch  of  literature,  by  the  Mi- 
chaelises,  of  Germany.  There  were  three  in  suc- 
cession of  this  name,  who  all  hold  high  and  honour- 
able places  in  the  list  of  modern  scholars,  viz. 
John  Henry,  Christian  Benedict,  and  John 
David.  The  last,  who  was  the  son  of  John 
Henry,  and  who  was  nearly  half  a  century  en- 
gaged in  promoting  oriental  literature,  exceeded 
both  his  father  and  uncle  in  this  species  of  erudi- 
tion, and,  indeed,  might  probably  with  truth  be 
pronounced  the  greatest  orientalist  that  the  western 
world  ever  beheld.     His  Oriental  and  Exegetical 

scure  and  difficult  of  construction.  The  Keri  is  the  Masoretical  emenda- 
tion, or  different  reading;  and  of  these  there  are  in  the  Bible  about  one 
thousand.  It  is  remarkable  that,  of  this  number,  nine  hundred  and  eighty-six 
have  been  found  in  the  texts  of  different  manuscripts,  by  the  industry  of 
Kennicot  and  Be  Rossi.  A  result  so  honourable  to  the  Masoritss  could 
scarcely  have  been  expected. 

o  Biblia  Hebraita,  olim  aCHRlSTIANO  ReiNECCIO  edit  a,  nunc  denuo  cum 
variis  lectionilus>  ex  ingenti  codicum  copia,  a  B.  Kennicotto  et  JoHAN. 
Bern.  De  Ros3i,  &c.  ediderunt  J.  C.  Doederlein,  et  J.  H.  Meissner, 
8vo.  Leips.  1793. 

VOL.  II,  K 


(i6  Oriental  Literature. 

Library}  and  his  numerous  detached  treatises,  may 
be  said  to  have  formed  a  new  epoch  in  Hebrew 
literature  in  Germany.  Another  work  of  great 
importance,  which  deserves  to  be  mentioned,  and 
which  certainly  contributed  to  keep  alive  and  ex- 
tend the  zeal  for  this  branch  of  literature  which 
had  been  before  excited,  was  a  periodical  publi- 
cation, entitled  the  Universal  Library  of  Biblical 
Literature,  printed  at  Leipsic,  from  the  year  1777 
to  1786,  in  eighteen  volumes.  This  publication 
was  conducted  by  Professor  Eichhorn,  of  Jena, 
and  is  full  of  masterly  criticism,  and  most  valuable 
information  for  the  orientalist.7  To  these  may  be 
added  the  Oriental  LAbrary  of  Professor  Hirt;  the 
Apparatus  Criticus  of  the  learned  Bengel;  the 
great  Hebrew  Lexicon  of  Calmet,  a  stupendous 
monument  of  erudition ;  and  the  various  publica- 
tions of  Drs.  Hunt,  Sharpe,  Lowth,  and  many 
others,  in  Great-Britain,  and  on  the  continent  of 
Europe/ 

The  study  of  the  Hebrew  language  in  America 
has  long  been  at  a  low  ebb.  At  the  close  of  the 
seventeeth  century  much  knowledge  of  this  lan- 
guage appears  to  have  existed  among  those  vene- 
rable Divines  who  planted  and  ministered  to  the 
churches  in  New-England.    Indeed,  at  that  period 


p  This  is  a  periodical  publication,  begun  in  1771,  and  concluded  irt 
I783,  and  consists  of  23  volumes,  besides  the  general  index.  It  was  re- 
newed in  1786,  under  the  title  of  Neue  Orientaliscbe  Bibliotbck,  and  con- 
tinued for  a  number  of  years,  in  which  time  there  were  at  least  8  volumes 
more  published. 

q  In  this  rich  treasure  of  oriental  learning  are  found  valuable  treatises 
not  only  from  the  pen  of  the  immediate  conductor,  but  also  many  from 
Professor  Bruns,  Professor  Tychsen,  and  others,  whose  names  are  a 
sufficient  pledge  for  the  display  of  great  erudition  and  talents  in  oriental 
literature. 

r  For  a  more  particular  notice  of  several  publications  since  those  of  Dr. 
Lowth,  more  particularly  by  Drs.  Newcome,  Blaney,  Wintle,  Hodg- 
son, and  a  long  catalogue  of  Hebrew  translators  and  critics,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  fourth  part  of  this  work,  under  the  head  of  Biblical  Literal 

turt. 


Oriental  Literature.  67 

this  kind  of  knowledge  was  possessed  by  very  few 
in  any  other  part  of  our  country.  Accordingly  the 
colleges  of  Harvard,  in  Massachusetts,  and  of  Yale, 
in  Connecticut,  it  is  believed,  are  the  only  semi- 
naries of  learning  in  the  United  States  in  which 
the  Hebrew  language  has  been,  for  any  consider- 
able portion  of  time,  regularly  taught;  and  at  the 
present  period  they  are  the  only  American  semina- 
ries in  which  there  are  regular  oriental  instructors.' 
A  few  of  those  destined  for  the  clerical  profession 
in  our  country,  make  themselves  acquainted,  to  a 
small  extent,  with  this  language,  so  inestimably  im- 
portant to  every  biblical  critic;  but  the  acquisitions 
of  such  are  generally  made  by  their  own  unassisted 
industry,  or  by  means  of  private  tuition/ 

In  1779  the  office  of  instruction  in  the  Hebrew 
language  was  added  to  a  professorship,  then  held 
in  the   University  of  Pennsylvania,  by  the  Rev, 


j  If  the  author  does  not  mistake,  the  Hebrew  language  has  been  taught 
in  Harvard  College  for  nearly  a  century,  and  during  the  greater  part  of 
that  time  by  a  professor  regularly  appointed  for  the  purpose.  In  Yale  Col- 
lege, there  has  been,  for  many  years,  more  or  less  attention  devoted  to 
Hebrew  literature;  but  it  was  not  until  the  autumn  of  1802  that  a  profes- 
sor for  this  branch  of  instruction  was  appointed.  The  gentleman  selected 
to  fill  this  office  is  the  Rev. Ebenezer  G.  Marsh,  who  has  the  character 
of  an  excellent  Hebrew  scholar. 

t  About  the  year  1760  the  Rev.  J.  G.  Kajls,  a  German  clergyman, 
who  had  an  uncommon  stock  of  Hebrew  learning,  came  to  America.  An- 
ticipating the  want  of  Hebrew  types  in  this  country,  he  brought  with  hira 
a  large  edition  of  a  voluminous  Hebrew  grammar,  which  he  had  composed, 
and  some  time  before  published;  and  many  copies  of  a  dictionary,  also  his 
own  production,  together  with  many  other  books  of  a  similar  kind.  He 
expected,  by  the  sale  of  these  works,  and  by  the  encouragement  which  he 
should  meet  with  as  an  instructor  of  this  language,  to  gain  an  ample  sup- 
port. But  he  soon  found  that  Hebrew  literature  was  not  a  very  saleable 
article  in  America;  and  that  all  his  zeal  was  not  sufficient  to  inspire  even 
his  clerical  brethren  with  a  general  taste  for  its  cultivation.  Being  present 
at  a  meeting  of  the  clergy,  when  some  candidates  for  the  gospel  ministry 
were  examined,  and  finding  that  ignorance  of  this  language  was  not  con- 
sidered as  a  disqualification  for  the  sacred  office,  he  rose  and  made  a  speech, 
filled  with  reproaches,  in  which  he  denounced  his  brethren  as  "  a  generation 
of  vipers"  and  left  them  with  disgust.  When  the  members  of  the  same 
ecclesiastical  body  afterwards  heard  of  his  being  in  distress,  and  made  a 
liberal  collection  for  his  relief,  he  received  it  with  this  sarcastic  remark, 
"  I  am  Elijah ;  the  ravens  must  feed  me." 


68  Oriental  Literature. 

Dr.  Kunze;  but  few  availed  themselves  of  the  op- 
portunity thus  afforded  for  gaining  a  knowledge  of 
this  ancient  tongue;  and  the  professorship  was 
continued  only  for  a  short  time.  In  1784  Pro- 
fessor Kunze  removed  to  the  city  of  New-York, 
and  was  soon  appointed  to  a  station  in  Columbia 
College,  similar  to  that  which  he  had  held  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania."  This  professorship 
had  a  slender  support  afforded  to  it,  by  an  annual 
allowance  from  the  legislature  of  New- York,  for 
five  years;  but  at  the  end  of  this  time,  the  allow- 
ance being  withdrawn,  the  department  of  oriental 
instruction  was  discontinued.  This  is  one  among 
the  several  instances  of  disreputable  literary  retro- 
cession, by  which  the  United  States  were  distin- 
guished at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Some  small  publications  for  promoting  Hebrew 
literature  were  made  in  America  during  the  cen- 
tury under  review.  Among  these  a  Hebrew 
Grammar,  by  Judah  Monis,  many  years  ago  a 
teacher  of  this  language  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, in  Massachusetts;  a  grammar,  by  Stephen 
Sewall,  also  some  time  since  an  Hebrew  in- 
structor in  the  same  institution;  and  a  work  of  a  si- 
milar nature  by  Dr.  Johnson,  formerly  President 
of  King's  College,  in  the  city  of  New-York,  may 
be  reckoned  the  most  considerable."     They  are 

v  Professor  Kunze,  soon  after  receiving  this  appointment  in  Columbia 
College,  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  office  with  an  enlightened  and  ardent 
zeal.  That  he  might  be  more  extensively  useful,  he  took  the  earliest  op- 
portunity of  sending  to  Europe  for  a  number  of  curious  and  voluminous 
works,  in  oriental  literature ;  and  resolved  by  this  means  not  only  to  fur- 
nish himself  with  the  best  publications  for  teaching  the  Hebrew  language 
in  the  most  profitable  manner,  but  also  for  initiating  his  pupils  into  the 
knowledge  of  the  Arabic  and  Syriac  dialects,  for  which  he  was  abundantly 
qualified.  But  all  his  exertions  were  rendered  abortive  by  the  unreasonable 
and  misplaced  economy  of  our  Legislators,  who  have  not  infrequently  acted 
as  if  they  considered  the  interests  of  literature  among  the  most  unimpor- 
tant objects  of  their  attention. 

«  Professor  Kunze  also  composed  a  Hebrew  grammar  on  an  improved 
plan,  for  the  use  of  his  pupils,  which  he  designs  to  publish  as  seon  as  a 
yrospect  of  sufficient  encouragement  appears. 


Oriental  Literature.  69 

only  mentioned  in  this  place  as  evidences  that  there 
has  been  some  taste  for  Hebrew  literature  in  Ame- 
rica; and  especially  that  a  few  individuals  have 
displayed  some  zeal  for  its  promotion,  which  only 
required  public  patronage  to  have  been  more  suc- 
cessful. 


ARABIC    LITERATURE. 

Though  something  was  said  in  the  preceding 
section  of  the  Hebrew  language  having  been  more 
successfully  studied  in  modern  times,  on  account 
of  the  increased  knowledge  of  Arabic  literature; 
yet  the  subject  is  worthy  of  more  particular  notice. 

Scarcely  any  oriental  language  was  so  well  un- 
derstood in  Europe,  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  as  the  Arabic.  The  excellent  publica- 
tions of  Erpenius  and  Golius,  of  Holland,  for 
facilitating  and  recommending  this  branch  of  east- 
ern literature,  had  been  then  laid  before  the  world, 
and  were  of  so  superior  a  character,  that,  by 
means  of  these  helps,  Sir  William  Jones  assures 
us,  we  may  understand  the  learned  Arabic  better 
than  the  deepest  scholar  at  Constantinople,  or  at 
Mecca.™  The  Bibliotheque  Orientate  of  M.  D'Her- 
belot,  a  very  learned  and  entertaining  work,  may 
also  be  mentioned  among  those  aids  which  had 
been  furnished  in  the  preceding  century,  for  the 
attainment  of  the  same  object.  Since  that  time 
further  light  has  been  thrown  on  the  literature  of 
Arabia,  by  the  observations  of  several  travellers, 
and  by  the  labours  of  various  learned  men. 

Early  in  the  century  Adrian  Reland,  of  Hol- 
land, and  John  Hudson,  and  Mr.  Le  Roque,*  of 

iv  See  Sir  William  Jones's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  39. 

x  Translation  of  Abulfeda's  Arabia.  I2mo.  Lond.  1718.  And  also 
his  Account  of  Arabian  Custom  and  Manners,     ixmo.  Lond.  1 732. 


70  Oriental  Literature. 

Great-Britain,  laboured  much,  and  with  very  ho- 
nourable success,  to  illustrate  the  literature  and 
science  of  Arabia.  They  were  followed  by  Al- 
bert Schultens/  of  Holland,  and  George  Cos- 
tard,2 an  English  divine,  who  were  certainly 
among  the  most  accomplished  Arabic  scholars  of 
the  age,  and  whose  various  publications  contri- 
buted to  extend  this  species  of  knowledge.  The 
latter,  in  particular,  distinguished  himself  by  his 
illustrations  of  Arabian  astronomy;  and  has  been 
pronounced,  by  a  good  judge,  to  be  one  of  the 
most  profound  oriental  astronomers  ever  born  out 
of  Asia.  In  Arabic  literature,  also,  the  labours 
of  the  Michaelises,  Reiske,  Bode,  and  Storr,  of 
Germany;  of  Professor  White  and  Sir  William 
Jones,  of  Great-Britain;  and  of  M.  Renaudot, 
the  Abbe  Marigny,  and  M.  DeSacy,  of  France, 
deserve  to  be  mentioned  with  high  encomium.  To 
the  above  may  be  added  the  information  commu- 
nicated by  several  travellers,  among  whom  Nie- 
buhr,  of  Denmark,  holds  a  distinguished  place. 

As  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  learned  men 
of  Holland  were  the  great  sources  of  information 
in  Arabic  literature,  and  had  done  more  than  those 
of  any  other  country  in  Europe,  to  advance  its  cul- 
tivation ;  so  in  the  eighteenth  it  is  believed  that 
Great-Britain  and  Germany  successfully  vied  with 
that  country  in  the  production  of  eminent  Arabic 
scholars.  Still,  however,  Holland  held  a  high  place 
with  respect  to  this  branch  of  oriental  literature. 
The  names  of  Reland  and  Schultens  alone  do 


^i  Monumrnta  Aniiquissim*  Histories  Arabum.  ScHULTENS  signalized  him- 
self by  maintaining,  in  opposition  to  Gousset  and  Driessen,  that,  in  order 
to  gain  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew,  it  was  necessary  to  join  with 
it  not  only  Chaldeac  and  Syriac,  but  also,  and  more  particularly,  the  Arabic. 

z    See  his  Letters  on  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Astronomy  among  the  Ana     I 
Svo.  1746.     And  also  his  General  History  of  Astronomy ^  induJirg  that  oftbt 
Arabians.      4 to.  1 7 77. 


Oriental  Literature.  71 

o-reat  honour  to  their  nation,  and  may  stand  in  the 
place  of  an  host  of  minor  orientalists. 

In  the  eighteenth  century,  the  Koran,  or  sacred 
book  of  the  Mahometans,"  was,  for  the  first  time, 
translated  into  English,  from  the  original  Arabic. 
In  the  seventeenth  century  that  work  was  first 
translated  into  the  French  language,  by  M.  Du 
Ryer,  Consul  of  the  French  nation  in  Egypt,  but 
in  a  very  imperfect  manner.  Soon  afterwards  a 
translation  from  this  version,  with  all  its  inaccura- 
cies and  imperfections,  was  made  into  English,  by 
Alexander  Ross,  who  knew  but  little  of  the 
French  language,  and  nothing  of  the  Arabic;  and 
w7ho,  of  course,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
added  a  great  mass  of  mistakes  to  those  of  Du 
Ryer.  But  in  the  century  under  consideration, 
this  ancient  record  of  the  Mahometan  faith  was 
ably  translated  into  English,  from  the  original 
Arabic,  by  Mr.  George  Sale,  an  English  gentle- 
man, profoundly  versed  in  the  literature  of  Arabia, 
and  who  accompanied  his  work  with  instructive 
and  highly  interesting  annotations.  The  appear- 
ance of  this  version  may  be  considered  as  forming 
an  epoch  in  the  progress  of  the  sacred  literature  of 
Arabia,  among  the  learned  of  Europe.  The  trans- 
lations of  some  other  important  works,  both  prose 


a  "  The  book  which  the  Mahometans  call  the  Koran,  or  Alcoran,  Is 
■composed  of  several  papers  and  discourses  of  Mahomet,  which  were  dis- 
covered and  collected  after  his  death,  and  is  by  no  means  that  same  Lazo 
"whose  excellence  Mahomet  vaunted  so  highly.  That  some  parts  of  the 
true  Koran  may  be  copied  in  the  modern  one,  is  indeed  very  possible ;  but 
that  the  Koran,  or  Laiv,  given  by  Mahomet  to  the  Arabians,  is  entirety 
distinct  from  the  modern  Alcoran,  is  manifest  from  this,  that  in  the  latter 
Mahomet  appeals  to  and  extols  the  former,  and  therefore  they  must  be 
two  different  compositions.  May  it  not  be  conjectured  that  the  true  Ko- 
ran was  an  Arabic  Poem,  which  Mahomet  recited  to  his  followers,  witJt- 
out  giving  it  to  them  in  writing,  ordering  them  only  to  commit  it  to  their 
memories?  Sueh  were  the  laws  of  the  Druids  in  Gaul,  and  such  also  those 
of  the  Indians,  which  the  Brahmins  receive  by  oral  tradition,  and  get  hf 
heart."    Mosasm's  £altt,  Hist.  vol.  ii.  p.  Ij8. 


72  Oriental  Literature. 

and  poetical,  from  the  Arabic,  in  the  course  of 
the  last  fifty  years,  may  also  be  mentioned  as  favour- 
able to  the  same  object. 


PERSIAN  LITERATURE. 

The  Persian  language  was  also  an  object  of  con- 
siderable attention,  and  the  knowledge  of  Persian 
literature  made  some  progress  in  Europe  during 
the  last  age.  It  was  before  remarked  that  the  la- 
bours of  Dr.  Hyde,  towards  the  close  of  the  se- 
venteenth century,  contributed  much  to  the  pro- 
motion of  this  object.  This  gentleman,  from  va- 
rious Persian  and  Arabian  writings,  from  the  rela- 
tions of  travellers,  together  with  numerous  letters 
from  persons  in  the  east,  compiled  his  celebrated 
work  on  the  Ancient  Persians,  which  has  been 
ever  since  regarded  as  a  standard  work  in  this 
branch  of  literature.  Since  that  time  much  has 
been  accomplished  in  the  same  field  of  inquiry. 
An  attempt  will  be  made  to  select  a  few  out  of 
the  numerous  facts  and  names  which  might  be 
mentioned  under  this  head. 

About  the  middle  of  the  century  M.  Anquetil 
du  Perron,  of  France,  made  a  voyage  to  the  East, 
for  the  purpose  of  recovering  the  writings  of  Zo- 
roaster, or  Zaratusht,  the  celebrated  ancient 
philosopher,  who  is  said  to  have  reformed,  or 
founded,  the  religion  of  the  Magi.  After  spend- 
ing a  number  of  years  in  Persia  and  India,  and 
applying  himself  to  Persian  literature  with  great 
zeal,  he  returned  to  his  own  country  in  1761,  and 
not  long  afterwards  published  a  work  under  the 
title  of  Zend-Avesta,  a  work  ascribed  to  Zoroas- 
ter, and  said  to  contain  his  pretended  revelations. 
Though  it  seems  to  be  generally  agreed  that  this 


Oriental  Literaiure.  7S 

work  is  spurious/  and  that  it  was  compiled  long 
posterior  to  the  time  in  which  Zoroaster  lived; 
yet  it  is,  on  several  accounts,  an  interesting  pub- 
lication, and  a  rich  source  of  instruction  to  the 
student  of  Persian  literature/ 

About  the  time  in  which  M.  Anquetil  pub- 
lished this  work,  the  study  of  the  Persian  language 
began  to  receive  much  attention,  and  to  become 
fashionable  among  some  of  the  literati  of  Great- 
Britain.  Warren  Hastings,  under  whose  au- 
spices, when  afterwards  Governor  of  India,  ori- 
ental literature  was  cultivated  with  so  much  zeal, 
became,  early  in  life,  fond  of  this  language,  and  ex- 
erted himself  to  diffuse  a  knowledge  of  it  in  his  own 
country.  Sir  William  Jones,  also,  while  yet  a 
youth,  discovered  much  of  that  enthusiastic  attach- 
ment to  eastern  learning,  in  which  he  afterwards 
made  such  astonishing  progress/    In  1773  he  pub- 


b  Sir  William  Jones,  on  the  appearance  of  this  work,  immediately 

decided  that  it  was  spurious.     See  his  Lettre  a  M.  A du  P dan* 

taquelle  est  comprls  V  Examen,  de  sa  traduction  des  livres  attribues  a  ZoROASTRE. 
1771. 

c  Zend-Avesta,   Owvrage  de  ZoROASTRE,   Iffc.   3  tom.  4tO.  1771. 

d  Sir  Willi  am  Jones  was  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  in  some  respects  one  of  the  most  wonderful  men  that  ever 
existed.  He  died  in  1 794,  after  having  lived  a  little  mo*e  than  47  years. 
In  this  short  period  he  had  acquired  an  extent  of  learning,  and  a  variety 
and  elegance  of  accomplishments,  which  seldom  fall  to  the  lot  of  an  indi- 
vidual. There  were  few  sciences  in  which  he  had  not  made  considera- 
ble proficiency,  and  in  most  his  knowledge  was  profound.  His  capacity 
for  the  acquisition  of  languages  has  probably  never  been  excelled.  In  Greek 
and  Roman  literature  his  early  proficiency  was  the  subject  of  admiratioa 
and  applause  ;  and  knowledge  of  whatever  nature  once  obtained  by  him 
was  ever  afterwards  progressive.  The  more  elegant  dialects  of  modem 
Europe,  the  French,  the  Spanish,  and  the  Italian,  he  spoke  and  wrote  witf» 
the  greatest  fluency  and  precision ;  and  the  German  and  Portuguese  were 
familiar  to  him.  At  an  early  period  of  life  his  application  to  oriental  li- 
terature commenced ;  he  studied  the  Hebrew  with  ease  and  success,  and 
many  of  the  most  learned  Asiatics  have  the  candour  to  avow  that  his 
knowledge  of  Arabic  and  Persian  was  as  accurate  and  extensive  as  their 
own.  He  was  also  conversant  in  the  Turkish  idioms,  and  even  the  Chinese 
had  attracted  his  notice  so  far  as  to  induce  him  to  learn  the  radical  cha- 
racters of  that  language,  with  a  view  perhaps  to  further  improvements. 
It  was  to  be  expected,  after  his  arrival  in  India,  that  he  would  eagerly  em- 
brace the  opportunity  of  making  himself  master  of  the  Sanscrit ;  and  the 
VOL.   ill  I, 


74  Oriental  Literature. 

lished  his  History  of  Nadir  Shah,  and  the  year  foh 
lowing  his  Persian  Grammar;  both  of  which 
works  hold  an  important  place  among  the  events 
in  oriental  literature  with  which  the  age  is  mark- 
ed. The  version  of  the  former  from  the  original 
Persian  into  French,  he  undertook  and  accom- 
plished from  a  regard  to  the  literary  reputation  of 
his  country,  that  it  might  not  be  carried  out  of 
England  with  the  reflection  that  no  person  had 
been  found  in  the  British  dominions  capable  of 
translating  it.  The  same  accomplished  Briton  af- 
terwards made  several  important  publications,  con- 
nected with  Persian  literature,  and  shed  much  ad- 
ditional light  on  this  department  of  eastern  learn- 
ing. 

To  Mr.  Francis  Gladwin,  also  of  Great- 
Britain,  one  of  the  most  unwearied  labourers  in 
oriental  literature  which  the  eighteenth  century 
produced,  the  public  is  much  indebted  for  the  aid 
which  he  rendered  to  students  of  the  Persian  lan- 
guage.    Besides    several   important   translations, 

most  enlightened  professors  of  the  doctrines  of  Brahmah  confessed,  with 
pride,  delight,  and  astonishment,  that  his  knowledge  of  their  sacred  dia- 
lect was  most  critically  correct  and  profound.  To  a  proficiency  in  the 
languages  of  Greece,  Rome,  and  Asia,  he  added  a  knowledge  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  those  countries,  and  of  every  thing  curious  or  valuable  that  had 
been  taught  in  them.  The  doctrines  of  the  Academy,  the  Lyceum,  or  the 
Porch,  were  not  more  familiar  to  him  than  the  tenets  of  the  Vedas,  the 
mysticisms  of  the  Sufis,  or  the  Religion  of  the  Ancient  Persians ;  and  whilst, 
with  a  kindred  genius,  he  perused  with  rapture  the  compositions  of  the 
most  renowned  poets  of  Greece,  Rome,  and  Asia,  he  could  turn  with  equal 
delight  and  knowledge  to  the  sublime  inquiries  or  mathematical  calculations 
of  Barrow  and  Newton.  Besides  all  these  acquisitions  the  theory  of 
music  was  familiar  to  him ;  he  had  made  himself  acquainted  with  the 
modern  interesting  discoveries  in  chemistry,  and  his  last  and  favourite  pur- 
suit was  the  study  of  botany,  in  which  he  made  great  progress,  and  had 
his  life  been  spared,  would  probably  have  been  a  reformer  and  discoverer. 
His  poetic  productions  discover  a  vigorous  imagination  and  an  elegant  taste. 
His  learning  and  talents  as  a  lawyer  were  still  more  eminent.  His  abili- 
ties and  integrity  as  a  magistrate  and  a  judge  were  universally  applauded; 
and,  to  crown  all,  the  purity  of  his  life,  and  the  fervour  of  his  piety,  as  a 
christian,  shed  a  lustre  upon  every  other  accomplishment.  See  a  Discourse 
delivered  before  the  Asiatic  Society  in  May,  1 794,  by  Sir  John  Shore,  now  Lord 
Teignmoutb,  prefixed  to  the  frst  volume  of  Sir  William  Jones's  Works. 


Oriental  Literature.  75 

which  alone  intitle  him  to  distinction,  he  published 
a  grammar  intitled  the  Persian  Moonshee;  and  also 
a  Compendious  Vocabulary,  English  and  Persian. 
These  were  presented  to  the  public  about  the  year 
1780,  and  have  received  great  and  just  praise. 

Besides  the  above  mentioned  gentlemen,  who 
were  eminently  distinguished  as  promoters  of  Per- 
sian literature,  some  others  deserve  to  be  respect- 
fully noticed,  as  having  contributed  to  the  same 
object.  Among  these,  Mr.  Richardson,  by  his 
Specimens  of  Persian  Poetry,  and  other  publica- 
tions; Major  Davy,  by  his  Institutes  of  Timour  ; 
Major  Ouseley,  by  his  Oriental  Collections ;  and 
M.  Mirkhond,  by  his  Hist  or  ia  P  riorum  Regum 
Persarum,  have  rendered  important  aid  to  the 
students  of  oriental  learning.  To  these  may  be 
added  the  valuable  information  given  respecting 
the  arts,  sciences,  and  literature  of  Persia,  by  Ta- 
vernier,  Franklin,  Niebuhr,  and  various  other 
intelligent  travellers  in  that  country. 


HINDOO    LITERATURE. 

In  this  branch  of  oriental  literature  the  eigh- 
teenth century  presents  a  degree  of  progress  highly 
interesting  and  honourable.  Though  it  is  now 
more  than  three  centuries  since  Europeans  first  na- 
vigated to  India;  and  though  the  inhabitants  of 
that  and  the  adjacent  countries  merit  the  attention 
of  the  curious  more,  perhaps,  than  any  other  peo- 
ple on  the  globe;  yet  it  is  but  a  few  years  since 
any  suitable  inquiries  were  instituted,  and  any  sa- 
tisfactory information  obtained,  respecting  the  li- 
terature and  science  of  that  important  portion  of 
the  Asiatic  continent. 

Early  in  the  century,  the  Lettres  Edifiantes  et 
Curieuses,   enriched    with  communications   from 


16  Oriental  Literature. 

missionaries  in  India,  were  published,  and  en- 
gaged much  of  the  attention  of  the  literary  world. 
After  these,  M.  Renaudot/  of  France,  and 
Theoph.  S.  Bayer/  a  learned  German,  each 
communicated  to  the  public  some  important  in- 
formation concerning  the  literature  and  sciences 
of  Hindostan;  insomuch  that,  notwithstanding 
the  great  improvements  in  oriental  knowledge 
since  their  time,  they  are  still  quoted  frequently 
and  with  high  respect.  To  these  great  oriental- 
ists, after  an  interval  of  many  years,  succeeded 
Mr.  HoiAVELi/  and  Mr.  Dow/  of  Great-Britain, 
who  spent  some  time  in  the  East,  and  who  pro- 
fessed to  give  the  public  much  new  and  curious 
information  concerning  the  religion  and  sacred  li- 
terature of  the  Hindoos.  The  publications  of  these 
gentlemen,  however,  are  by  no  means  consistent 
with  each  other,  or  with  themselves  -,  and  although 
they  contain,  especially  the  works  of  Mr.  Hol- 
well,  some  useful  and  instructive  matter,  they  are 
far  from  being  considered  unexceptionable  authori- 
ties, by  later  and  better  informed  writers. 

Mr.  Warren  Hastings,  soon  after  receiving 
the  appointment  of  Governor  of  Bengal,  formed 
the  design  of  procuring  a  complete  code  of  the 
laws  and  customs  of  the  Hindoos.  With  a  view 
to  the  accomplishment  of  this  design,  he  invited, 
about  the  year  1773,  a  number  cf  Brahmans,  who 
were  learned  in  the  Sanscrit  language,  from  Be- 
nares, and  other  parts  of  the  country,  to  convene 
in  Calcutta.  They  complied  with  the  invitation, 
and  after  making  large  collections  from  the  most 


t  Atuiennes  Relations  des  Indcs,  et  de  la  Chine,   &c.  1718* 
f  Elementa  Liter  at.  Brahmanica,   Vfc.  1 732. 

g  See  his  work  on  the  Fasts,  Festivals,  and  Metempsychosis  of  the  Hindoo;^ 
1  vols.  8vc.  1/66,  and  also  his  Interesting  Historical  Events,  a  vols.  8vo 
I766. 

b  Translation  </Ferishta'b  Indian  History,  3  vols.  4t0.  1 770. 


Oriental  Literature.  77 

authentic  books,  both  ancient  and  modern,  the 
whole  was  translated  into  the  Persian  language, 
from  which  an  English  version  was  published  by 
Mr.  Nathaniel  B.  Halhed,  in  1776.  The  pub- 
lication of  this  work  may  be  regarded  as  an  im- 
portant event  in  the  history  of  Hindoo  literature/ 

It  was  long  ago  known,  that  all  the  science  and 
literature  possessed  by  the  Brahmans  were  recorded 
in  the  Sanscrit^  an  ancient  and  sacred  language 
which  was  understood  only  by  a  few  of  the  most 
learned  among  themselves,  and  with  which  the 
rest  of  mankind  were  wholly  unacquainted.  For 
nearly  three  centuries  different  Europeans,  settled 
in  India,  sought  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  this 
language,  but  without  success.  The  Brahmans, 
either  systematically  opposed  to  the  use  of  any 
means  for  gaining  proselytes  to  their  religion  and 
habits,  or  suspecting  that  some  improper  use  was 
intended  to  be  made  of  the  information  solicited, 
uniformly  refused  to  instruct  any  one  in  their  sacred 
books.  But,  at  length,  won  by  the  address  and 
persuasion  with  which  the  application  was  pre- 
sented, and  being  convinced  that  no  intention  hos- 


i  About  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Akber,  the  sixth  in  de- 
scent from  Tamerlane,  and  a  Prince  of  distinguished  talents  and  virtues, 
ascended  the  throne  of  Hindostan.  As  in  every  part  of  his  extensive  do- 
minions, the  Hindoos  formed  the  great  body  of  his  subjects,  he  laboured  to 
acquire  a  perfect  knowledge  of  their  religion,  sciences,  laws,  and  institu- 
tions ;  that  he  might  conduct  every  part  of  his  government,  particularly  the 
administration  of  justice,  in  a  manner  as  much  accommodated  as  possible  to 
their  own  ideas.  In  this  undertaking  he  was  seconded  by  his  vizier,  Abul 
Fazel,  a  minister  whose  understanding  was  not  less  enlightened  than  that 
cf  his  master.  By  their  assiduous  researches  and  consultation  of  learned 
men,  such  information  was  obtained,  as  enabled  Abul  Fazel  to  publish 
a  brief  compendium  of  Hindoo  jurisprudence  in  the  Ayeen  Akbery,  which 
may  be  considered  as  the  first  genuine  communication  of  its  principles  to 
persons  of  a  different  religion.  About  two  centuries  afterwards  Mr.  Hast- 
ings imitated  and  surpassed  the  example  of  Akber.  See  Robertson's 
India,  p.  260. 

j  The  word  Sanscrit,  according  to  Mr.  Wilkins,  is  compounded  of  the 
preposition  San,  signifying  completion,  and  Skrtia, finished,  implying  that  the 
language  is  exquisitely  refined  and  polished. 


78  Oriental  Literature. 

tile  to  them  or  their  religion  was  entertained  by  the 
applicants,  they  yielded.  Mr.  Nathaniel  B. 
Halhed,  before  mentioned,  was  the  first  English- 
man who  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  Sanscrit. 
He  was  soon  followed  in  this  interesting  acquisi- 
tion by  Mr.  Charles  Wilkins,  and  Sir  William 
Jones,  who  were  not  long  in  giving  to  the  public 
the  fruits  of  their  labours. 

The  first  translation  ever  made  from  the  sacred 
language  of  the  Brahmans  into  English,  was  by  Mr. 
Wilkins,  and  published  in  1785.    This  translation 
was  from  the  Mahabarat,  an  epic  poem  much  es- 
teemed among  the  Hindoos, and  which,  in  the  origi- 
nal, is  very  voluminous,  consisting  of  more  than  four 
hundred  thousand  lines,  of  which  Mr.  Wilkins 
translated  at  least  one  third,  but  published  only  an 
Episode,  entitled  Baglwat-Geeta.    The  publication 
of  this  work  excited  great  curiosity  in  the  literary 
world,  and  was  the  occasion  of  increased  attention 
to  eastern  learning.     In  1786  a  second  translation 
from  the  Sanscrit  language,  by  Sir  William  Jones, 
was  laid  before  the  public.     This  was  Sacontala,  a 
dramatic  poem,  of  great  antiquity,  and  indicating 
considerable  refinement,   both   of  sentiment   and 
manners,  among  those  who  could  produce  or  relish 
it.     In  1787  Mr.  Wilkins  again  laid  the  republic 
of  letters  under  obligations  to  him,  by  publishing 
a  version  of  the  Heeto-pades,  or  Amicable  Instruc- 
tion, a  series  of  connected  fables,  interspersed  with 
moral,  prudential,  and  political   maxims.     These 
were  followed  by  several  other  versions  from  the 
Sanscrit  of  less  importance,  by  Mr.  Wilkins,  Sir 
William  Jones,  and  some  anonymous  hands. 

In  addition  to  the  various  translations  which  have 
been  made  from  this  ancient  language,  its  structure, 
beauties,  and  antiquity,  have  been  the  subjects  of 
much  ingenious  and  instructive  investigation, 
within  a  few  years  past.   Among  these  the  inquiries 


Oriental  Literature.  10 

of  Mr.  Halhed,*  and  especially  of  Sir  William 
Jones,  deserve  particular  attention,  and  the  high- 
est praise.'  To  Father  Paolino,  formerly  Pro- 
fessor of  Oriental  Languages  in  the  Propaganda 
at  Rome,  the  public  are  also  indebted,  for  some 
useful  exertions  to  promote  the  study  of  Sanscrit. 
During  a  residence  of  thirteen  years  in  India  he  ac- 
quired much  information  concerning  this  language, 
and  formed  a  grammar,  which  is  said  to  exhibit  its 
elements  in  a  very  clear  and  satisfactory  manner. 

The  institution  of  the  Asiatic  Society,  in  Cal- 
cutta, in  the  year  1784,  forms  an  important  era  in 
the  history  of  oriental  learning.  The  design  of  this 
association  was  to  trace  the  antiquities,  arts,  sci- 
ences, and  literature  of  the  immense  continent  of 
Asia.  It  was  planned  and  founded  by  Sir  William 
Jones,  who  was  long  its  president,  and  certainly 
the  most  active  and  extensively  useful  member. 
How  diligent,  and  unwearied  the  labours  of  this 
association;  and  how  curious  and  valuable  the 
results  of  their  investigations,  are  generally  known 
by  means  of  the  several  volumes  of  Asiatic  Be- 
searches,  which  have  been  laid  before  the  public 
in  the  course  of  the  last  fifteen  years.  In  these 
volumes,  the  intelligent  reader  will  find  an  amount 
of  information,    on   the  subjects  of  inquiry   be- 

k  Mr.  Halhed  is  of  opinion  that  the  Sanscrit  was,  in  ancient  periods, 
current,  not  only  over  all  India,  considered  in  its  largest  extent,  but  over 
all  the  oriental  world  ;  and  that  traces  of  its  original  diffusion  may  still  be 
discovered  in  almost  every  region  of  Asia. 

/  "  The  Sanscrit  language,  whatever  be  its  antiquity,  is  of  a  wonderful 
structure;  more  perfect  than  the  Greek,  more  copious  than  the  Latin,  and 
more  exquisitely  refined  than  either;  yet  bearing  to  both  of  them  a  stronger 
affinity,  both  in  the  roots  of  verbs,  and  in  the  forms  of  grammar,  than 
could  possibly  have  been  produced  by  accident;  so  strong,  indeed,  that  no 
philologer  could  examine  them  all,  without  believing  them  to  have  sprung 
from  some  common  source,  which,  perhaps,  no  longer  exists.  There  is 
similar  reason,  though  not  quite  so  forcible,  for  supposing  that  both  the 
Gothic  and  the  Celtic,  though  blended  with  very  different  idioms,  had  the 
same  origin  with  the  Sanscrit :  and  the  old  Persian  might  be  added  to  the 
same  family."  See  Sir  William  Jones's  Third  Discourse  before  the  Asiatic 
Society. 


80  Oriental  Literature. 

fore  stated,  which  the  whole  literary  world  could 
not  have  furnished  antecedently  to  their  appear- 
ance. By  studying  the  Sanscrit  language,  in 
wrhich  the  most  authentic  and  ancient  records  of 
the  Hindoos  are  written;  by  opening  communica- 
tions between  distant  regions  of  the  East;  and  by 
frequently  penetrating  into  the  interior  parts  of  the 
country,  conversing  with  the  learned  men,  inspect- 
ing their  monuments,  and  observing  their  habits 
and  manners,  an  astonishing  mass  of  new  facts  has 
been  obtained  and  given,  by  their  labours,  to  the 
public;  and  from  the  same  source,  much  more, 
perhaps,  of  still  greater  value,  may  be  expected. 
They  have  entered  into  paths  of  inquiry  which,  if 
diligently  and  skilfully  pursued,  must  conduct  to 
the  richest  treasures  of  information. 

It  is  believed  that  neither  the  original  Tredas,m 
which  are  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos,  nor 
the  Shastahs,  which  are  commentaries  upon  them, 
have  ever  yet  been  exhibited  complete  in  any  Eu- 
ropean language.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  scarcely  any  thing  was  known  of 
these  books,  out  of  their  native  country.  Since 
that  time,  important  extracts  from  them  have  been 
published,  and  a  tolerable  view  of  their  con* 
tents  presented  to  the  world,  first  by  Mr.  Hol- 
well,  before-mentioned;  afterwards,  though  with 
less  faithfulness,  by  Mr.  Dow;  and  at  still  later 
periods,  by  Sir  William  Jones  and  others."  The 
disclosures  which  these  publications  have  effected, 
concerning  the  sacred  literature  of  the  Hindoos, 
have  served  equally  to  interest  and  to  gratify  the 
curiosity  of  the  philosopher  and  the  Christian. 

m  The  books  called  VeJas  are  four  in  number.     They  are  so  denomi- 
nated from  Veda^  a  Sanscrit  root,  signifying  to  knotv. 

Sir  William  Jones  tells  us  that  the  four  Vedas  are  comprized  in 
eleven  large  folio  volumes,  a  complete  copy  of  which  was  obtained  by  Col. 
Polier,  of  Great-Britain,  who  resided  many  years  at  Delhi  t  and  displayed' 
the  most  laudable  zeal  in  collecting  Indian  curiosities. 


Oriental  Literature.  81 

The  Astronomy  and  Chronology  of  Hindostan 
engaged  much  of  the  attention  of  oriental  scho- 
lars, especially  towards  the  close  of  the  century 
under  consideration.  The  honour  is  due  to  the 
French  of  having  commenced  this  inquiry  in  a  re- 
gular and  scientific  manner.  M.  Le  Gentil  first 
brought  to  light,  from  the  recesses  of  their  tem- 
ples, with  any  tolerable  accuracy,  the  Astronomy 
of  the  Brahmans.0  Since  he  wrote,  the  inquiry  has 
been  pursued  more  fully  and  ingeniously  by  his 
countryman,  M.  Bailly/  by  Sir  William  Jones, 
who  has  contributed  to  the  illustration  of  almost 
every  part  of  oriental  literature  and  science;  and 
by  Mr.  Playfair,7  of  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh; and  still  more  recently  by  Mr.  Samuel 
Davis,  Mr.  John  Bentle  y,  and  others,  whose  valu- 
able communications  appear  in  the  Asiatic  Re- 
searches.  To  these  may  be  added  the  chronolo- 
gical inquiries  of  Mr.  Marsden  and  Mr.  Pa- 
terson.  The  result  of  all  which  is  the  most  com- 
plete proof,  that  the  extravagant  and  ridiculous 
claims  made  by  the  Brahmans,  concerning  the 
antiquity  of  their  nation  and  their  sciences/  are 
wholly  destitute  of  foundation.  Indeed,  the  latest 
inquiries  afford  satisfactory  evidence  not  only  that 
-no  antiquity  inconsistent  with  the  Mosaic  chrono- 
logy can  be  claimed  by  them ;  but  that  the  dates  of 
their  most  ancient  books  and  records  are  far  more 
recent  than  even  the  friends  of  the  scripture  his- 
tory at  first  supposed. 

The  Geography  of  India  received  much  elucida- 

©  SccLe  Voyagt  dans  h  Mers  de  flnde,  8cc. par  M.  Le  Gentil.    I"j6g. 
p  Traite  de  V Astronomie  Indienne  ct  Orientate.      I7&7* 
g  See  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  vol.  ii.   p.  t$Sm 
r  In  all  the  computations  of  the  Brahmans  the  most  enormous  extrava- 
gance appears.       They  suppose  the  period  which  has  elapsed  since  the: 
creation  to  be  more  than  seven  millions  of  years  !  In  the  same  spirit  of  bound- 
less absurdity,  they  make  the  circumference  of  the  earth  to  be  500,000,000 
yojanas,  or  3,45 6,000,000  British  miles ;  and  the  height  of  many  moun- 
tains to  be  100  yojanast  or  491  British  miles  ! 
VOL.  II.  M 


82  Oriental  Literature. 

tion,  by  the  labours  of  learned  orientalists  in  the 
course  of  the  last  age/  At  an  early  period  of  the 
century  John  Hudson,  of  Great-Britain,  com- 
menced this  inquiry,  and  pursued  it  with  honour- 
able success.  He  was  followed,  after  an  interval 
of  many  years,  by  M.  D'Anville,  of  France, 
who,  in  his  Antiquite  Geographique  de  VInde,  and 
in  his  Eclaircissemens  Geographiques  sur  la  Carte 
de  Vlnde,  gave  a  more  satisfactory  and  scientific 
view  of  the  subject  than  any  who  had  gone  before 
him.  The  next  important  publication  on  the 
geography  of  India  was  by  Major  Rennell,  who, 
in  his  Map  of  Hindostan,  and  in  his  Memoir  ac- 
companying the  same,  made  a  present  of  incom- 
parable value  to  the  public.  And,  finally,  the 
services  rendered  to  this  branch  of  oriental  inquiry 
by  Sir  William  Jones,  Colonel  Wilford,  and 
several  other  members  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of 
Calcutta,  demand  many  acknowledgments  from 
the  friends  of  literature  and  science. 

Besides  the  contributors  to  Hindoo  literature 
above  named,  a  number  of -other  gentlemen,  who 
have  employed  themselves  in  promoting  the  same 
object,  deserve  to  be  respectfully  mentioned. 
Among  those  the  several  publications  of  Mr. 
Orme,  an  English  gentleman  much  conversant 
inHindoo  learning;  thoseofMr.CoLEBROOKE,who 
has  translated  some  Hindoo  writings,  and  thrown 
considerable  light  on  the  history  and  literature  of 
Hindostan ;  the  Sketches  relating  to  the  letters  and 
science  of  that  country,  successively  given  by 
Forster,  Crauford,  and  Kindersley,  all  of 
Great-Britain ;  and  the  various  works  of  different 
comparative  value,  by  Sir  John  Shore,  Sir  Wil- 

s  Though  the  Geography  of  India  does  not  strictly  fall  under  the  deno- 
mination of  Hindoo  Literature;  yet,  as  the  two  subjects  have  generally 
been  treated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  stand  in  connection  with  each  other, 
it  is  thought  proper  to  introduce  this  paragraph  here. 


Oriental  Literature.  33 

liam  Ouseley,  Mr.  Burrow,  Mr.  Hunter,  and 
a  number  more  of  the  same  country,  who  spent  a 
considerable  time  in  India,  have  added  much  to 
our  stock  of  knowledge  respecting  that  important 
portion  of  Asia.  But  among  all  the  writers  on 
this  subject,  few  have  rendered  such  essential 
service  to  the  cause  of  oriental  literature  as  the 
Reverend  Thomas  Maurice,  a  learned  and  in- 
genious English  Divine,  who,  in  his  Indian  An- 
tiquities,  has  collected  and  laid  before  the  public 
a  mass  of  information  respecting  the  theology, 
geography,  jurisprudence,  political  establishments, 
and  various  literature  of  Hindostan,  so  rich  and  in- 
structive, as  will  entitle  him  to  the  lasting  gratitude 
of  every  friend  to  liberal  knowledge,  and  genuine 
religion/ 

The  living  languages  of  India  have  been  better 
and  more  extensively  understood  by  Europeans  of 
the  eighteenth  century  than  ever  before.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  with  the  Bengalee  language, 
of  which  grammars  and  dictionaries  were  intro- 
duced into  Europe  for  the  first  time  during  this 
period,  and  into  which  a  part  of  the  Christian 
Scriptures  were  for  the  first  time  translated.  The 
establishment  of  the  British  East-India  Company, 
and  the  extensive  commercial  arrangements  of  that 
association,  may  be  considered  as  bearing  a  near 
relation  to  these  events,  and  as  having  exerted  a 
favourable  influence  on  the  general  interests  of 
oriental  literature. 

CHINESE    LITERATURE. 

It  is  generally  known  that  Europe  is  indebted  to 
the  learned  men  of  France  for  almost  all  the  know- 
ledge of  Chinese  literature  of  which  it  can  boast. 

*  See  Indian  Antiquities;  or  Dissertations  relative  to  Hindostan,  J  vols.  8vo. 


84  Oriental  Literature. 

As  early  as  the  sixteenth  century,  a  number  of 
French  Jesuits  penetrated  into  China,  and  by  their 
learning  and  address  conciliated  the  favour  of  the 
government.  These  missionaries  were  followed 
by  others,  of  various  characters  and  talents,  and,  in 
fact,  a  succession  of  them  was  maintained,  amidst 
many  changes  of  reception  and  treatment,  until 
after  the  middle  of  the  century  under  consideration. 
The  opportunities  which  they  enjoyed  for  ex- 
ploring the  literature  and  science  of  that  empire 
were  diligently  improved.  Much  of  the  informa- 
tion which  they  acquired  was  transmitted,  at  diffe- 
rent periods,  to  Europe;  and  though  the  faithful- 
ness of  their  narratives  has  sometimes  been  called 
in  question,  the  works  compiled  from  their  letters 
and  journals  may  be  considered  as,  on  the  whole, 
the  richest  sources  of  instruction  in  this  department 
of  oriental  inquiry  .v 

Toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  M. 
Couplet,  one  of  the  missionaries  above  mentioned, 
translated  such  of  the  works  of  Confucius,  the 
celebrated  Chinese  philosopher,  as  have  been  pre- 
served. This  was  considered  as  an  important  ser- 
vice to  literature,  and  gave  him  an  honourable 
place  in  the  list  of  oriental  scholars.  Not  long  af- 
terwards a  very  extensive  and  interesting  publica- 
tion made  its  appearance  in  France,  under  the 
title  of  Lettres  Edifiantes  et  Curieuses  des  Missions 
Estrangeres.  The  greater  part  of  this  work,  which 
was  compiled  from  the  papers  of  the  missionaries, 
and  which  extended  to  more  than  forty  volumes, 
was  published  at  an  early  period  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  contains  an  ample  fund  of  instruc- 
tion concerning  the  literature  and  science  of  China. 

v  The  missionaries  have  been  perhaps  too  freely  charged  with  the  wans 
of  fidelity  in  their  accounts  of  China.  Later  inqairies  have  shown  that 
there  is  ground  for  this  charge,  at  least  in  some  instances.  Still,  however^ 
these  accounts  are  highly  valuable,  and  abundantly  worthy  of  perusal. 


Oriental  Literature.  83 

This  was  followed  by  the  Anciennes  Relations  des 
hides,  etdela  Chine,  of  M.  Renaudot,  which 
made  an  important  addition  to  the  stock  of  in- 
formation before  possessed  on  the  subjects  of  which 
it  treats.  To  these  succeeded  the  great  work  of 
Father  Du  Halde,  entitled  a  General  Description 
of  China;  and  a  work,  under  nearly  the  same  title, 
by  the  Abbe  Grosier,  both  of  which  are  consi- 
dered as  publications  of  the  first  class,  and  as  con- 
taining much  instructive  matter  relating  to  the 
learning,  arts,  and  general  condition  of  the  won- 
derful country  which  they  describe. 

The  singular  intricacy  of  the  Chinese  language, 
the  difficulty  of  acquiring  a  tolerable  knowledge 
even  of  its  elementary  principles,  and  the  restraints 
which  have  long  been  imposed  upon  all  intercourse 
between  the  learned  men  of  Europe  and  of  China, 
have  prevented  an  acquaintance  with  that  language 
from  becoming  more  frequent  in  the  literary  world. 
Hence,  while  the  philosophy,  astronomy,  history, 
and  other  sciences  of  China  have  been  deeply  in- 
vestigated, and  some  knowledge  of  them  exten- 
sively diffused,  during  the  last  age,  the  characters 
and  structure  of  the  language  of  that  country  have 
been  but  little  explored.  A  few  attempts,  how- 
ever, were  made,  in  the  period  under  review, 
and  not  altogether  without  success,  to  communi- 
cate to  the  public  some  information  on  this  subject. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  century,  and  nearly  about 
the  same  time,  Theophilus  Sigifred  Bayer,  be- 
fore mentioned,  and  M.  Fourmont,  a  learned 
orientalist  of  France,  published  their  researches  in 
the  Chinese  language.  The  former  was  one  of  the 
I  greatest  proficients  in  the  literature  of  China  that 
the  age  produced;  the  latter  also  attained  high 
eminence  in  the  same  wralk  of  learning,  and  pub- 
lished a  grammar  of  the  Chinese  language,  which 
has  received  much  praise.      A  few  years  after- 


86  Oriental  Literature. 

wards  M.  De  Guignes  published  the  result  of 
his  inquiries  respecting  this  language,  and  gave 
some  specimens  of  its  characters  and  words."  He 
was  followed  by  M.  Pauw,  a  learned  Prussian, 
who  presented  to  the  world  what  he  called  Philoso- 
phical Besearches  concerning  the  Chinese,  which, 
though  they  indicate  the  strongest  prejudices,  yet 
contain  some  useful  information. 

In  1761  a  very  singular  and  curious  performance 
made  its  appearance  in  Great-Britain.  This  was 
a  translation  of  a  Chinese  novel,  under  the  title  of 
Hau  Kiou  Chooan,  or  the  Pleasing  History,  in 
four  volumes.  The  translation  had  been  made  a 
number  of  years  before  by  Mr.  James  Wilkin- 
son, a  British  merchant,  who  had  resided  for  some 
time  at  Canton,  where  he  studied  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage. The  editor  was  Dr.  Thomas  Percy,  who 
accompanied  the  publication  with  extensive  and 
learned  notes,  which  have  a  tendency  not  only  to 
illustrate  the  composition  immediately  connected 
with  them,  but  also  to  throw  new  light  on  the 
character  of  Chinese  literature  in  general.11' 

In  1776  was  published  the  first  volume  of  an 
extensive  work  on  the  literature,  sciences,  and  his- 
tory of  China,  compiled  from  papers  communicated 
bv  French  missionaries  in  that  countrv.  Two  Chi- 
nese  young  men,  after  residing  several  years  in 
France,  and  receiving  a  liberal  education,  returned 
to  their  own  country  in  1765.  They  carried  with 
them  a  number  of  questions,  from  some  learned 
societies  of  France,  particularly  relating  to  the  li- 
terary and  philosophical  condition  of  China,  and 


u  See  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres,  es- 
pecially vols.  xxx.  xxxvi.  and  xxxviii. 

iv  It  is  said  that  the  Reverend  Dr.  Blair,  the  celebrated  teacher  of 
Rhetoric  in  Edinburgh,  once  remarked  in  conversation,  that  the  Pleasing 
History  contained  a  more  authentic  and  interesting  account  of  the  internal 
state  of  China,  than  all  the  other  publications  on  that  subject  that  he  had 
ever  seen. 


Oriental  Literature.  87 

to  which  answers  were  requested  from  themselves 
and  the  missionaries.  The  communications  made 
in  consequence  of  these  queries  were  published  in 
the  work  above  mentioned.  In  these  communi- 
cations, and  especially  in  those  which  relate- to 
the  Chinese  language,  Fathers  Amiot  and  Cibot 
make  the  most  respectable  figure,  and  have  given 
the  most  valuable  information/  Besides  these,  M. 
Le  Gentil,  M.  Sonnerat,  and  M.  L ancles,  of 
France;  and  Sir  William  Jones,  Sir  George 
Staunton,  and  others,  of  Great-Britain,  have 
given  the  public  some  instructive  accounts  relating 
to  the  letters,  arts,  and  philosophy  of  the  Chinese 
empire. 

The  last  conspicuous  labourer  in  this  field  of  in- 
quiry is  the  Reverend  Dr.  Hagar,  a  learned  Ger- 
man, who  resided  a  number  of  years  in  the  east, 
and  gained  an  uncommon  acquaintance  with  the 
Chinese  language.  His  knowledge  enabled  him 
to  present  the  public  with  a  work  on  this  language, 
in  which  he  entered  into  a  more  full  and  satisfac- 
tory explanation  of  its  elementary  characters  than 
had  been  before  attempted.  This  is  the  first  sys- 
tematic work  that  has  been  published  in  Europe 
on  Chinese  writing  and  reading,  and  evinces  great 
industry  and  apparent  skill  in  the  author/ 


It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  all  the  investiga- 
tions in  oriental  literature  by  which  the  last  age 
was  distinguished,  furnished  new   and  very   im- 


*  See  Memoires  Concernant  I '  Histoire,  le  Sciences,  Us  Arts,  &C.  extend-* 
ing  to  a  number  of  volumes  in  4to. 

y  See  An  Explanation  of  the  Elementary  Characters  of  the  Chinese  Language, 
ivith  an  Analysis  of  their  Ancient  Symbols  and  Hieroglyphics,  &c.  by  Joseph 
Hagar,  D.  D.  Though  this  work  was  not  actually  published  till  the 
beginning  of  January,  1801  ;  yet  as  both  the  acquisition  of  Dr.  Hagar's 
Chinese  learning,  and  the  composition  of  this  work  belong  to  the  eighteenth 
century,  they  havs  a  place  assigned  them  within  that  period. 


%S  Oriental  Literature. 

portant  arguments  in  favour  of  the  truth  of  Re- 
velation. Early  in  the  century  which  is  the  sub- 
ject of  this  retrospect,  it  was  supposed,  and  some 
zealous  adversaries  of  revealed  religion  diligently 
propagated  the  idea,  that  inquiries  into  the  chro- 
nology and  other  sciences  of  several  eastern  na- 
tions, strongly  opposed,  and  were  in  a  fair  way 
wholly  to  destroy  the  credibility  of  the  Mosaic 
history.  Assertions  of  this  kind  were,  in  particu- 
lar, made  with  great  confidence,  by  certain  scep- 
tical philosophers  of  France,  who  were  always 
ready  to  believe  any  thing  which  might  release 
them  from  the  obligation  to  believe  in  Christianity. 
Later  and  more  accurate  investigations,  however, 
have  shown  that  this  opinion  is  totally  erroneous, 
and  that  the  more  deeply  we  penetrate  into  the  li- 
terature and  science  of  the  east,  the  more  striking 
evidence  we  find  in  favour  of  the  scripture  account 
of  the  creation  and  age  of  the  world,  and  also  in 
support  of  several  important  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel. 

The  light  which  modern  oriental  inquiries  have 
thrown  on  the  Mosaic  system  of  chronology  was 
before  mentioned.  Those  who  undertook  to  assail 
the  sacred  history  by  means  of  arguments  drawn 
from  the  high  assumptions  of  the  Brahmans,  and 
of  the  literati  of  other  eastern  nations,  have  been 
completely  refuted;  indeed  the  annals  of  science 
scarcely  furnish  an  instance  of  hostile  invaders 
being  more  entirely  defeated,  and  their  arms 
turned  more  directly  against  themselves.  It  has 
been  proved  by  indisputable  authorities,  "  that 
the  personages  who  are  said  to  have  flourished  so 
many  thousand  years  in  the  earliest  ages,  were  of 
celestial,  not  terrestrial  origin;  that  their  empire 
was  the  empire  of  imagination  in  the  skies,  not  of 
real  power  on  this  globe  of  earth;  that  the  day  and 
year  of  Brahmah,  and  the  day  and  year  of  mortals, 


Oriental  Literature,  39 

nre  of  a  nature  widely  different;  that  the  whole 
jargon  of  the  Vugs,  or  grand  periods,  and,  conse- 
quently, all  those  presumptuous  assertions  of  the 
Brahmans,  relative  to  the  earth's  antiquity,  have 
no  foundation  but  in  the  great  solar  and  lunar 
cycles,  or  planetary  revolutions. "2 

Very  rich  and  curious  information  has  also  been 
derived  from  late  oriental  inquiries,  which  serves 
at  once  to  illustrate  and  confirm  the  scripture  doc- 
trine of  the  Trinity.  One  of  the  most  learned  and 
accurate  orientalists  of  the  age  considers  the  fol- 
lowing facts  as  decisively  established  by  recent  in- 
vestigations,  viz.  "  First,  that  in  the  Sephiroth,  or 
three  superior  splendours  of  the  ancient  Hebrews, 
may  be  discovered  the  three  hypostases  of  the 
Christian  Trinity;  secondly,  that  this  doctrine 
flourished  through  nearly  all  the  empire  of  Asia, 
a  thousand  years  before  Plato  was  born;  and, 
thirdly,  that  the  grand  cavern-pagoda  of  Elephanta, 
the  oldest  and  most  magnificent  temple  in  the 
world,  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  a  superb  temple 
to  a  Tri-une  God."  If  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
be  contained  in  the  Old  Testament  scriptures,  as 
it  certainly  is;  and  if  some  knowledge  of  this  stu- 
pendous mystery  of  our  holy  religion  were  con- 
veyed to  the  faithful  in  the  earliest  times,  which 
we  may  safely  presume  to  have  been  the  case;  then 
it  was  natural  that  some  ideas  of  this  doctrine, 
more  or  less  distinct,  and  connected  with  a  greater 
or  less  portion  of  fable,  should  be  found,  as  the  re- 
sult of  tradition,  in  most  nations  of  the  world. 
That  this  is  really  the  case,  the  learned  have  long 
had  increasing  reason  to  believe.  But  the  inquiries 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  especially  those  in- 
stituted in  the  east,  have  rendered  this  truth  more 
indisputably  apparent  than  ever,  and  have    thus 

*  See  Maurice's  Indian  Antiquities^  and  his  History  of  Hindostan. 
VOL.   II.  N 


90  Oriental  Literature. 

furnished  new  evidence  in  favour  of  those  precious 
doctrines  which  are  connected  with  it,  and  which 
are  fully  brought  to  light  in  the  gospel. 

Similar  references  to  the  Fall  of  man,  and  the 
Deluge,  have  also  been  found  by  discoveries  in  the 
east,  as  well  as  allusions  of  the  most  remarkable 
kind  to  the  mission  and  character  of  the  Messiah; 
all  tending  to  support  the  idea  of  a  common  faith 
having  descended  by  tradition  from  the  family  of 
Noah  to  their  posterity;  and  thus  to  furnish  a  new, 
and,  considered  in  all  its  relations,  a  most  powerful 
argument  in  favour  of  the  authenticity  of  the  sa- 
cred history. 

This  tendency  of  literary  and  scientific  discove- 
ries in  the  east,  to  confirm  the  sacred  history,  has 
been  ably  displayed  by  Sir  William  Jones,  and 
other  contemporary  writers  whose  inquiries  appear 
in  the  Asiatic  Researches ;  but  by  none  so  exten- 
sively, and  in  a  manner  so  convincing  and  popular, 
as  the  Reverend  Mr.  Maurice,  of  Great-Britain, 
who,  in  his  Indian  Antiquities,  and  his  History  of 
Hindostan,  has  presented  a  view  of  the  subject,  sg 
incontrovertible  and  satisfactory  as  to  place  him 
among  the  most  meritorious  defenders  of  Revela- 
tion which  modern  times  have  produced. 

The  illustration  of  sacred  scripture  by  means  of 
circumstances  incidentally  mentioned  in  books  of 
eastern  travels,  is  a  most  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive field  of  inquiry,  both  to  the  philosopher  and 
the  Christian.  Services  of  this  nature,  more  rich 
and  valuable  than  ever  before,  have  been  rendered 
to  biblical  criticism,  during  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. One  of  the  most  useful  writers  on  this  sub- 
ject which  the  age  produced,  was  the  Reverend 
Mr.  Harmer,  of  Great-Britain.  He  published  an 
extensive  and  learned  work,  in  which,  by  means 
of  information  derived  from  voyagers  and  travellers 
in  the  east,  he  placed  many  passages  of  scripture 


Modern  Languages.  91 

in  a  light  altogether  new ;  ascertained  the  meaning 
of  others,  not  discoverable  by  the  methods  com- 
monly used  by  interpreters;  and  proposed  many 
probable  conjectures  highly  instructive  to  the  sa- 
cred critic*  Several  other  writers  of  considerable 
note  have  also  presented  the  public  with  useful  ob- 
servations on  the  same  subject. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

MODERN    LANGUAGES. 

IN  this  chapter  it  will  only  be  attempted  to  pre- 
sent some  brief  and  general  remarks  on  the  im- 
provements which  have  been  received  during  the 
last  age  by  the  more  cultivated  living  languages  of 
Europe.  To  propose  a  discussion  of  greater  ex- 
tent would  be  to  engage  in  an  inquiry  altogether 
incommensurate  with  the  design  and  the  limits 
of  the  present  sketch. 

There  is  no  living  language  in  Europe  which 
can  boast  of  greater  antiquity  than  five  or  six  cen- 
turies. Derived  from  various  sources,  and  rising 
from  rude  beginnings,  to  a  regular  and  consistent 
character,  they  have  been  gradually  becoming 
more  rich,  copious,  and  polished  during  the  greater 
part  of  this  time.  To  trace  the  causes  and  the 
means  of  these  improvements  through  their  inter- 
rupted and  devious  course,  is  here  neither  necessary 
nor  possible.  It  would  be  a  task  of  great  migni- 
tude  and  difficulty  to.  the  most  accomplished  phi- 
lologist. 

a  See  Observations  on  divers  Passages  of  Scripture }  &C.  4  vols.  tfvo.  1 77^ 
and  1787. 


92  Modern  Languages. 

The  portion  of  these  improvements  which  be- 
long to  the  eighteenth  century  may,  in  general, 
be  pronounced  to  be  very  great,  and  to  demand 
particular  consideration  in  tracing  the  revolutions 
and  the  progress  of  this  period.  They  deserve  the 
more  attention  on  account  of  their  connection  not 
only  with  the  literary  and  scientific,  but  also  with 
the  social  and  political  interests  of  the  age. 

The  increased  intercourse  of  men,  during  the 
last  century,  led  to  important  revolutions  and  im- 
provements in  the  living  languages.  By  means  of 
this  intercourse  the  learned  or  different  nations  have 
become  more  acquainted  with  the  idioms  and  beau- 
ties of  many  other  languages  than  their  own;  and 
this  acquaintance  has  caused  the  respective  trea- 
sures of  each  language  to  become,  in  a  degree,  the 
common  property  of  all.  Hence  the  more  culti- 
vated tongues  of  Europe  have  been  very  perceptibly 
enriched,  within  a  few  years,  by  the  adoption  of 
many  significant  words  and  phrases  from  each 
other,  as  well  as  from  those  which  are,  in  general, 
less  worthy  of  imitation. 

The  effects  of  this  extended  intercourse  have 
been  aided  by  the  great  number  of  translations,  by 
which  modern  times  are  peculiarly  distinguished. 
There  never  was  an  age  in  which  the  most  esteemed 
literary  productions  of  different  nations  were  so. 
extensively  circulated,  or  exhibited  to  the  world 
in  so  many  different  languages.  The  unexampled 
prevalence  of  this  practice  has  rendered  the  cha- 
racteristic peculiarities  of  various  tongues  better 
known,  and  produced  the  insensible  incorporation 
of  them  with  others.  This  is  the  great  source  of 
those  "  imported"  words  and  phrases  which  have 
sometimes  received  the  approbation  of  philologists, 
but  of  which  they  have,  perhaps,  more  frequently 
and  justly  complained. 


Modern  Languages.  93 

The  numerous  discoveries  in  science  and  the 
arts,  during  the  period  under  review,  also  led  to 
the  introduction  and  familiar  use  of  many  terms 
of  which  the  learned  of  the  preceding  age  were  en- 
tirely ignorant.  Almost  the  whole  dialect  of  phi- 
losophy, both  natural  and  moral,  has  become  new 
within  the  period  in  question.  How  rich  and  va- 
luable the  stores  which  language  has  received  from 
this  source,  can  only  be  adequately  conceived  by 
those  who  are  able  to  take  a  distinct  view  of  the 
improvements  in  philosophy,  and  all  the  arts  of 
life,  in  the  course  of  the  last  hundred  years. 

To  the  above  considerations  may  be  added  the 
numerous  instances  of  the  new  coinage  of  words, 
by  popular  writers,  arising  either  from  necessity, 
from  caprice,  from  vanity,  from  affectation,  or 
other  causes.  Some  of  these  new  emissions,  how- 
ever they  may  fail  on  the  score  of  authority,  must 
be  considered,  on  the  whole,  as  useful  additions  to 
modern  languages.  From  this  source  the  aii£- 
mentation  or  our  literary  treasures  is  constant; 
and  if  due  vigilance  be  exercised  to  guard  against 
capricious  and  wanton  innovation,  substantial  ad- 
vantages to  the  interests  of  language  may  thence  be 
expected  to  flow. 

The  influence  of  all  these  considerations,  taken 
together,  has  introduced  an  amount  of  modification 
and  improvements  into  modern  languages,  within 
the  last  century,  beyond  all  doubt,  greater  than 
were  ever  introduced  in  any  preceding  period  of 
equal  extent.  That  large  additions  have  been 
made  to  the  number  of  words,  no  one  can  for  a 
moment  hesitate  to  admit.  But  this  is  by  no 
means  all  that  may  be  asserted. 

The  style  of  composition  also,  in  most  of  the 
living  languages,  has  been  greatly  improved  since 
the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  style  of  the  best  writers,  at  the  present  day, 


94  Modern  Languages. 

though  perhaps  inferior  to  the  exquisite  refinements 
produced  by  Grecian  and  Roman  taste,  is  essen- 
tially superior  to  that  which  was  employed  by  the 
most  correct  models  of  the  preceding  age.  Modern 
languages  now  exhibit  more  grammatical  accuracy, 
more  precision,  energy,  and  polish,  and  a  more 
graceful,  luminous,  and  philosophic  construction, 
than  they  could  boast  at  that  period.  We  have 
thrown  off  "  the  useless  load  of  words  which  in- 
cumbered our  predecessors,,,  and  discarded  their 
circuitous  and  tedious  routes  to  a  meaning,  which 
formerly  disgusted  the  literary  traveller.  In  short, 
the  first  class  of  writers  of  the  eighteenth  century 
display  a  smoothness  and  force  of  manner,  a  taste 
in  the  selection  of  words,  and  a  scientific  perspi- 
cuity of  arrangement,  which  are  no  where  to  be 
found  so  admirably  united  in  those  who  went  be- 
fore them. 

These  remarks  do  not  apply,  with  unqualified 
propriety,  to  all  the  living  languages  of  Europe. 
The  Italian  language,  it  is  believed,  was  consider- 
ably before  any  of  the  rest,  in  attaining  its  highest 
point  of  refinement.  This  was  chiefly  accom- 
plished before  the  commencement  of  the  last  age, 
since  which  time  it  is  not  known  that  any  radical 
or  important  improvements  have  taken  place  in 
that  language.  The  French  language  also,  if  the 
writer  does  not  mistake,  had  received  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  that  cultivation  which  it  now  ex- 
hibits, before  the  period  of  this  retrospect.  Still, 
however,  it  is  supposed  that  both  these  languages, 
and  especially  the  latter,  may  with  truth  be  repre- 
sented as  partaking  in  some  degree  of  the  large 
mass  of  improvement  which  has  accrued  to  many 
others  within  the  last  age. 

But  not  to  content  ourselves  with  these  gene- 
ral remarks,  let  us  descend  to  the  particular  consi- 
deration of  some  of  those  living  Eurooean  Ian- 


Modern  Languages.  95 

guages,  which  may  be  supposed  to  have  received 
the  greatest  number  of  improvements  during  the 
last  century,  and  to  be  most  worthy  of  notice.6 

ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 

The  English  Language  has  received,  during  this 
period,  a  large  portion  of  the  improvements  which 
have  been  mentioned.  From  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  to  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  English  style  had  been  in  a  regular  course 
of  refinement  and  general  melioration.  The  great 
British  Lexicographer,  Dr.  Johnson,  tells  us  that 
the  writings  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  who  died  in 
1583,  furnish  a  boundary  beyond  which  he  made 
few  excursions  in  search  of  the  "  wells  of  English 
undefiled."'  After  Sidney,  the  important  suc- 
cessive improvements  conferred  on  our  language 
by  Shakspeare,  Hooker,  Milton,  Clarendon, 
Temple, Tillotson,  Sprat,Dryden,  and  Locke, 
pre  well  known,  and  have  been  frequently  the  sub- 
jects of  eulogium  by  the  literary  historian.  But 
still  these  writers  left  many  defects  to  be  supplied. 
Their  respective  styles,  though  various,  wTere,  for 
the  most  part,  formal,  feeble^  circuitous,  abound- 
ing with  excrescences,  and  cumbrous  parts,  and 
in  many  instances  perplexed,  inaccurate,  and  in- 
elegant to  a  very  high  degree.  These  charges,  in- 
deed, do  not  equally  belong  to  all  that  have  been 

b  In  the  following  sections  the  intelligent  reader  will  observe  that  the 
Italian,  the  Spanish,  the  Dutch,  and  several  other  important  dialects  of 
modern  Europe,  are  omitted.  The  reason  for  this  omission  is  the  best  in 
the  world.  It  is  because  the  author  knows  so  little  of  those  languages,  and 
is  so  entirely  ignorant  of  the  details  of  improvement  which  they  have  re- 
ceived, that  he  cannot  undertake  to  state  them.  It  is  presumed,  however, 
that  the  improvements  which  have  lately  taken  place  in  most  of  the  culti- 
vated living  languages,  respectively,  agree  in  so  many  respects,  that  the 
exhibition  of  those  which  belong  to  one  may  be  considered  as  applying  in 
a  considerable  degree  to  the  rest. 

c   Preface  to  the  Dictionary  of  the  Engliib  Language . 


96  Modem  Languages. 

mentioned ;  for  few  would  admit  that  Shakspeare, 
Milton,  and  Dryden  were  feeble  writers.  But 
the  general  application  of  the  character  .above 
stated  will  scarcely  be  denied.  And  though  it 
may  be  allowed,  that  the  most  of  those  writers 
were  free  from  some  faults  which  have  since  be- 
come fashionable,  still  they  were  chargeable  with 
others  equally  great,  and  more  inconsistent  with 
the  philosophy  of  language. 

The  eighteenth  century  opened  with  better  pros- 
pects. The  writings  of  Addison  formed  an  im- 
portant era  in  English  literature.  In  truth,  this  ce- 
lebrated author  attained,  at  once,  a  style  of  com- 
position so  much  superior  to  that  of  any  who  had 
gone  before  him,  that  none  can  peruse  the  monu- 
ments which  he  has  left  us  of  his  taste  without  admi- 
ration. He  was  less  faulty  in  multiplying  synony- 
mous words  than  his  predecessors.  He  displayed 
also  more  judgment  in  the  choice,  and  more  preci- 
sion in  the  use  of  terms.  The  forced  metaphor, 
the  dragging  clause,  the  harsh  cadence,  and  the 
abrupt  close,  were  carefully  excluded  from  his 
pages.  He  exhibited,  in  an  eminent  degree,  that 
correctness,  perspicuity,  ease,  and  harmony,  in 
which  preceding  writers  had  been  so  remarkably 
deficient.  He  was  the  first  English  prose  writer 
who  discovered  any  thing  like  distinguished  taste 
in  the  choice  and  management  of  figures.  "  Pure, 
without  scrupulosity,  and  correct,  without  apparent 
elaboration;  equally  free  from  studied  amplitude, 
and  affected  brevity;  familiar,  but  not  coarse;  and 
elegant,  but  not  ostentatious,"1'  he  deserves  to 
be  ranked  among  the  most  meritorious  reformers 
of  our  language. 

While  Addison  was  employed  in  communi- 
cating to  English  style  a  new  degree  of  ease  and 

d  Johnson. 


Modern  Languages.  97 

polish,  Swift  was  successfully  engaged  in  culti- 
vating it,  with  a  particular  view  to  its  purity  and 
precision.  Endowed  with  a  mind  among  the 
most  vigorous  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and 
directing  particular  attention  to  the  subject  of  lan- 
guage, he  attained  distinguished  excellence  as  a 
writer.  He  was  the  first  who  attempted  to  express 
his  meaning  without  "  subsidiary  words  and  cor- 
roborating phrases."  He  was  still  more  sparing  in 
the  use  of  synonymes  than  Addison;  and  without 
being  very  solicitous  about  the  structure  or  har- 
mony of  his  periods,  he  attended  particularly  to 
the  force  of  individual  words.  Less  figurative  and 
adorned  than  Addison,  he  learned  more  success- 
fully than  he,  to  avoid  the  diffuse  and  feeble  man- 
ner which  had  so  generally  characterized  English 
composition.  Mr.  Hume  supposes  that  the  first 
elegant  prose  in  our  language  was  written  by 
Swift. 

To  Mr.  Pope,  also,  English  style  is  much  in- 
debted. "  He  cultivated  the  beauties  of  language 
with  so  much  diligence  and  art,  that  he  has  left, 
in  his  Homer,  a  treasure  of  poetical  elegances  to 
posterity.  His  version  may  be  said  to  have  tuned 
his  native  tongue;  for  since  its  appearance,  no 
writer,  however  deficient  in  other  powers,  has 
wanted  melody."*  The  style  of  English  versifica- 
tion attained  in  his  hands  that  sweetness  of  har- 
mony, that  grace  of  embellishment,  that  curiosa 
felicitas,  which  have  never  since  been  surpassed. 
There  is  scarcely  a  happy  combination  of  words,  or 
a  phrase  musical  and  captivating,  which  is  not  to 
be  found  in  his  writings. 

The  improvements  introduced  by  these  benefac- 
tors to  English  literature  were  pursued  and  ex- 
tended by  several   contemporary  and  succeeding 


*  Johnson's  Lift  of  Poft. 
VOL,   II.  o 


98  Modern  Language. 

writers.  Among  the  first  of  these  Shaftesbury 
and  Bolingbroke  hold  an  honourable  place/  The 
style  of  the  former,  though  excessively  and  elabo- 
rately delicate,  and  displaying  a  continual  fond- 
ness for  artificial  arrangement,  and  affected  state- 
liness,  is  still  rich  and  musical,  and  contributed 
not  a  little  to  improve  the  public  taste.  The 
writings  of  the  latter,  exhibiting  the  ease  and  ele- 
gance of  Addison  with  more  vigour,  were  also 
useful  in  promoting  the  prevalence  of  correct  and 
elegant  composition.  Neither  of  them,  however, 
can  be  said  to  have  introduced  a  fashion  of  writing 
wholly  new,  or  to  have  formed  a  remarkable  era 
in  the  history  of  the  English  language.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  Middleton,  Fielding,  Sherlock, 
Smollet,  Hawkesworth,  Goldsmith,  Mel- 
moth,  and  several  others.  With  various  talents 
and  modes  of  expression,  and  with  different  de- 
grees of  literary  merit,  they  all  contributed  some- 
thing to  the  cultivation  of  style,  and  each  displayed 
some  new  and  peculiar  excellence,  without  pro- 
ducing, singly,  any  thing  like  a  revolution  in 
manner. 

The  change  introduced  into  English  style  by  Dr. 
Johnson,  deserves  particular  notice.  This  great 
philologist,  while  he  was  ambitious  to  convey  im- 
portant moral  and  literary  truth,  laboured  also  to 
<c  refine  the  language  of  his  country  to  grammatical 
purity,  and  to  clear  it  from  colloquial  barbarisms, 
licentious  idioms,  and  irregular  combinations;  to 
add  something  to  the  elegance  of  its  construction, 
and  something  to  the  harmony  of  its  cadence."^ 
Nor  did  he  labour  in  vain.     He  effected  important 


/  It  will  readily  occur  to  the  reader  that  nothing  is  meant  to  be  spokea 
of  here  but  the  style  of  these  writers.  The  tendency  of  their  publications9 
in  a  moral  and  religious  view,  will  be  particularly  noticed  in  a  subsequent 
part  of  this  work. 

£  Rambler,  vol.  iv.  No,  »o£. 


Modern  Languages.  99 

improvements  in  English  style.  He  improved  the 
form  of  its  phrases,  the  construction  of  its  sentences, 
and  the  precision  and  appropriateness  of  its  diction. 
He  introduced  a  strength  and  solidity  of  expression ; 
a  dignity,  not  to  say  pomp  of  manner,  which, 
though  becoming  in  him,  can  scarcely  be  imitated 
without  danger;  and  in  the  happy  art  of  exhibit- 
ing a  number  of  adjunct  ideas  in  the  same  sentence 
with  perspicuity  and  vigour,  he  has  rarely  if  ever 
been  equalled.  He  enriched  the  language,  also, 
with  many  words,  adopted  from  the  Greek  and 
Latin.  In  this,  indeed,  he  has  been  censured  by 
some,  and  perhaps  with  justice,  as  having  gone 
too  far,  and  resorted  to  foreign  aid  without  neces- 
sity. But  though  it  be  admitted  that  he  has,  in 
some  instances,  transgressed  his  own  rules,  yet  he 
certainly  added  largely  to  the  stores  of  English  dic- 
tion, and  may,  on  the  whole,  be  considered  one 
of  the  greatest  benefactors  to  English  literature  that 
the  age  produced. 

But  signal  as  the  improvements  in  style  which 
Dr.  Johnson  either  introduced,  or  contributed  to 
promote,  yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  in  some 
respects,  he  gave  countenance  to  a  false  taste  in 
-writing.  He  brought  into  vogue,  a  style,  which 
is,  perhaps,  too  far  removed  from  the  ease  and 
simplicity  of  colloquial  discourse;  which  too  much 
abounds  in  artificial  embellishment,  formal  mo- 
notonous structure,  and  elaborated  figure;  and 
which,  when  employed  on  subjects  less  dignified 
than  those  of  which  he  usually  treated,  is  extremely 
faulty.  His  manner,  perverted  and  extravagantly 
extended,  has  led  many  fashionable  writers  to  sup- 
pose that  a  continual  glare  of  metaphor,  an  un- 
ceasing effort  to  exhibit  epigrammatic  point,  and 
an  undistinguishing  stateiiness  of  march,  were 
among  the  superior  beauties  of  composition.  These 
faults,  together  with  the  short  sentences,  so  much 


100  Modern  Languages. 

affected  within  a  few  years  past,  by  several  popu- 
lar writers,  are  among  the  fantastic  errors,  which 
a  spirit  of  misguided  imitation,  or  a  perverted  taste, 
have  brought  too  much  into  use. 

It  would  be  unpardonable,  in  this  sketch,  not 
to  take  notice  of  several  other  writers,  who,  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  century  in  question,  made  a 
distinguished  figure  in  the  annals  of  English  style. 
Among  these,  perhaps,  the  most  worthy  of  our  at- 
tention, are  the  author  of  the  letters  of  Junius, 
Mr.  Burke,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  and  Bishop 
Watson.  The  remarkable  characteristics,  and 
the  peculiar  excellence  of  the  style  of  Junius 
are  well  known.  Mr.  Burke,  though  sometimes 
very  inaccurate,  yet  furnished  many  specimens  of 
splendid  and  forcible  eloquence,  which  would  have 
done  honour  to  the  brightest  era  of  Grecian  or  Ro- 
man  taste.  While  the  writings  of  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds*  and  Bishop  Watson,  more  chaste  and 
correct,  and  scarcely  inferior  in  force  and  other 
beauties,  will  long  be  read  as  admirable  models  of 
English  composition. 

To  the  above  names  might  be  added  those  of 
Dr.  Beattie,  Dr.  Blair,  and  several  others,  both 
in  North  and  South  Britain,  either  still  living  or 
lately  deceased,  who  have  contributed  to  form  and 
extend  a  taste  for  elegant  writing.  But  to  these 
it  would  be  impossible  to  do  justice  without  en- 
gaging in  a  discussion  too  minute  for  the  limits  of 
the  present  sketch. 

In  English  historical  style,  Hume  and  Robert- 
son are,  unquestionably,  the  best  models.  The 
former  excels  in  ease,  spirit,  and  interest;  the  lat- 
ter in  purity,  dignity,  strength,  and  elegance.  The 

h  Tn  this  remark,  the  charge  against  the  memory  of  Sir  J.  Reynolds, 
as  having  been  assisted  by  Mr.  Burke,  in  the  composition  of  those  noble 
discourses  which  he  delivered  before  the  Royal  Academy,  is  taken  for 
granted  to  be  false,  or,  at  least,  not  true  to  the  extent  which  has  heec 
stated. 


Modern  Languages.  101 

great  improvement  which  they  have  effected  in  this 
kind  of  composition,  since  the  time  of  Clarendon, 
and  of  Rapin,  must  be  obvious  to  the  most  care- 
less reader.  Mr.  Gibbon  has  attempted  to  carry 
the  ornaments  of  this  kind  of  style  much  higher  than 
his  predecessors  had  ventured.  But  it  seems  to  be 
the  opinion  of  most  impartial  judges,  that  many  of 
his  favourite  ornaments  are  meretricious;  that  his 
loftiness  is  often  nothing  more  than  bombast  and 
affectation;  that  what  he  imagined  to  be  beautiful 
splendour  of  diction,  is  frequently  disgusting  glare; 
that  in  aiming  at  a  dignity  far  above  the  ease  of  dis- 
course, he  becomes  so  "  fantastically  infolded"  as 
to  be  obscure,  if  not  unintelligible.  His  manner 
has  indeed  many  beauties,  but  it  has  also  multi- 
plied blemishes;  and  the  reader  of  taste  will  pro- 
bably allow  that  English  style  has  rather  suffered 
deterioration  than  gained  improvements  by  his  li- 
terary labours. 

The  sum  of  the  matter,  then,  seems  to  be  this; 
that  English  style,  since  the  commencement  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  has  become  more  rich  and 
copious,  by  a  large  accession  of  words;  that  it  has 
gained  a  more  "  lofty  part,"  and  "  moves  with  a 
more  firm  and  vigorous  step;"  that  the  structure  of 
sentences,  in  our  best  authors,  is  more  compressed, 
accurate,  and  philosophical;  that  "  the  connective 
particles  are  used  with  more  attention  to  their  ge- 
nuine meaning;"  and,  in  general,  that  the  scientific 
spirit  of  the  age  has  extended  itself  remarkably,  in 
giving  to  our  language  that  precision,  spirit,  force, 
polish,  and  chaste  ornament,  which  are  so  fre- 
quently met  with  at  the  present  day/ 

i  There  are  some  good  remarks  on  English  style  in  the  Inquirer,  a  Series 
cf  Essaysyby  William  Godwin.  Though  no  friend  to  human  happiness 
can  recommend  the  moral  or  religious  principles  of  this  writer,  which  are 
pre-emineutly  fitted  to  delude,  corrupt  and  destroy ;  yet  he  is  himself 
master  of  a  vigorous  style,  and  his  judgment  on  a  question  of  literary  taste 
is  entitled  to  respect. 


102  Modern  Languages. 

The  English  language  is,  indeed,  capable  of 
much  greater  improvement,  and  will,  probably,  re- 
ceive more  than  it  has  yet  attained.  Improprieties, 
and  violations  of  analogy  are  to  be  found,  in  con- 
siderable number,  in  the  best  writers;  and  many 
of  those  words  and  phrases  which  modern  inno- 
vators have  introduced,  a  better  taste  will,  no  doubt, 
indignantly  dismiss.  If  more  than  forty  years  ago 
a  celebrated  writer  could  complain,  with  justice,  of 
numerous  departures  from  the  purity  of  English 
idiom,  and  deviations  toward  the  "  Gallick  struc- 
ture and  phraseology/'  it  is  presumed  that,  since 
that  time,  the  complaint  has  become  better  found- 
ed. Mr.  Hume,  and,  in  a  higher  degree,  Mr. 
Otbbon,  to  say  nothing  of  a  multitude  of  less  con- 
spicuous writers,  are  chargeable  with  many  devi- 
ations from  the  purity  of  our  language,  and  the  in- 
troduction of  many  phrases  by  no  means  consistent 
with  its  analogy.  Still,  however,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted, that  these  faults  are  accompanied  with  real 
and  numerous  improvements;  that  the  style  of  our 
jbest  authors  is  not  only  incomparably  superior  to 
that  which  prevailed  antecedently  to  the  time  of 
Addison,  but  also,  in  some  respects,  superior  to  his 
best  specimens;  and  that  excellences  of  style  have 
lately  become  more  common  and  popular  than  at 
any  former  period;  insomuch,  that  we  now  often 
find  in  an  occasional  pamphlet,  or  in  the  pages  of 
a  gazette,  a  perspicuity,  energy,  and  elegance  of 
diction,  for  which  we  might  have  looked  in  vain 
among  the  best  models  of  the  seventeenth  century, 

Besides  the  improvements  which  have  taken 
place  in  English  style,  during  the  last  age,  the 
language  has  undergone  several  minuter  changes, 
which  are  not  unworthy  of  being  just  mentioned. 
The  Orthography  of  our  tongue  has  received  con- 
siderable modifications.  Superfluous  letters  have 
been  discarded  from  many  words.     And,  in  the 


Modern  Languages.  103 

use  of  capitals,  great  alterations  have  been  intro- 
duced. But  besides  the  changes  in  orthography 
which  have  been  generally  received,  and  are  now 
established,  several  proposals  were  made,  in  the 
course  of  the  century  we  are  considering,  for  a  more 
radical  reform.  Of  this  reform,  which  consisted 
in  an  attempt  to  render  the  spelling  more  conform- 
able to  the  rules  of  pronunciation,  Mr.  Elphin- 
stone,  of  Great-Britain,  and  Dr.  Franklin  and 
Mr.  Noah  Webster,  of  our  own  country,  among 
others,  have  appeared  as  the  most  conspicuous  pro- 
jectors and  patrons,  since  the  time  of  Bishop  Wil- 
kins.  The  successive  proposals  and  exertions  of 
these  gentlemen,  to  attain  this  favourite  end,  were 
all  unsuccessful.  The  great  majority  of  philologists 
seem  to  have  considered  them  as  useless  in  them- 
selves, calculated  to  injure  the  analogy  of  the  lan- 
guage, completely  subversive  of  etymological  prin- 
ciples, and  productive  of  numerous  inconveniences 
and  evils. 

The  attention  lately  paid  to  English  Orthoepy, 
may  be  considered  as  peculiar  to  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  pronunciation  of  our  language  was, 
a  few  years  ago,  in  a  very  crude,  loose,  and  neg- 
lected state.  This  circumstance  attracted  the  no- 
tice of  several  ingenious  and  accurate  men,  who 
perceiving  the  importance  of  some  regular  and  con- 
sistent plan  of  pronouncing,  engaged  in  a  system 
of  reform  on  this  subject;  and  by  exhibiting  the 
anomalies  of  pronunciation,  and  pointing  out  its 
analogies,  were  enabled  to  lay  down  rules,  which 
have  proved  extensively  useful.  Among  those 
writers  who  deserve  high  praise  on  this  subject, 
Mr.  Elphinstone,  before  mentioned,  is  entitled  to 
the  first  place.     At  the  commencement  of  his  in- 

j  This  word,  like  the  art  which  it  is  designed  to  express,  is  of  recent 
formation.  It  is  derived  from  the  Greek  words  'of§oi}  rccius,  and  i^o;t 
<»erbum>  and  signifies  the  art  of  pronouncing  vcl-L 


104       •  Modem  Languages. 

quiries,  he  found  Orthoepy  in  a  most  chaotic  con- 
dition. In  his  Principles  of  the  English  Language, 
he  did  much  towards  reducing  the  chaos  to  order, 
and  laid  down  the  principles  of  a  just  and  regular 
pronunciation.  But  by  treating  the  subject  in  a 
way  not  calculated  to  be  popular;  and  by  endea- 
vouring to  make  an  extravagant  and  ill-judged  re- 
form in  the  orthography  of  the  language,  he  lost 
that  portion  of  credit  with  the  public,  to  which  his 
merit  entitled  him;  and  his  labours  were  less  use- 
ful than  they  ought  to  have  been.  After  Mr.  El- 
phinstone,  Dr.  Kenrick  appeared  as  a  teacher 
and  reformer  in  pronunciation;  and  his  Rhetorical 
Dictionary  may  be  regarded  as  a  very  respectable 
and  useful  contribution  for  this  purpose.  Next  to 
him  came  Mr.  Sheridan,  who  carried  his  im- 
provements on  this  subject  still  further;  and  in  his 
Dictionary,  gave  to  the  public  a  standard  of  pro- 
nunciation much  superior  to  any  thing  that  had 
been  offered  by  his  predecessors.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Mr  Nares,  who,  in  his  Elements  of 
Orthoepy,  treated  the  subject  in  a  new  and  inge- 
nious manner,  and  introduced  yet  greater  im- 
provements. The  last  distinguished  writer  on  this 
branch  of  English  Grammar,  is  Mr.  Walker.6 
This  gentleman,  in  his  Critical  and  Pronouncing 
Dictionary,  seems  to  have  united  the  different  ex- 
cellences of  those  who  went  before  him;  to  have 
avoided  many  of  their  mistakes;  to  have  supplied 
a  large  portion  of  their  defects;  and,  on  the  whole, 
to  have  furnished  the  republic  of  English  literature 
with  the  best  standard  of  pronunciation  which  the 
language  affords.' 


k  Since  the  publication  of  Walker's  work,  a  pronouncing  dictionary 
has  been  presented  to  the  public  by  Mr.  Jones,  also  of  Great-Britain.  It 
is  believed  that  the  best  judges  consider  this  work  as  containing  little  if  any 
real  improvement  on  that  of  Walker. 

/  See  preface  to  Walker's  Critical  and  Pronouncing  Dictionary. 


Modem  Languages.  105 

Notwithstanding  the    splendid  excellences  of 
composition  displayed  in  the  writings  of  Addison, 
Pope,    and  Swift,  all   the    treatises  on   English 
Grammar  in  use  when  they  wrote  were  crude  and 
unsatisfactory.     The  principles  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  tongues  were  transferred  to  the  English,  and 
grammatical  works  formed  accordingly.     On  this 
plan  every  writer  upon  English  grammar  had  pro- 
ceeded anterior  to  the  time  of  Dr.  Lowth.     The 
number  and  value  of  his  improvements  are  Gene- 
rally known  to  grammarians.     Since  his  time  the 
labours  of  Priestley,  Sheridan,  Ash,  Tooke, 
Pickburn,   Walker,    Webster,    Murray,  and 
others,  have   produced  additional  light   and   im- 
provement in  the  grammar  of  our  language*     The 
best  English  grammar  now  extant  is  that  by  the 
last  named  writer,  Mr.  Lindley  Murray,  who, 
by  this  publication,  and  by  several  others    con- 
nected with  it,  and  designed  as  auxiliaries  to  its 
principal  purpose,  has  become  entitled  to  the  gra- 
titude of  every  friend  to  English  literature,  and  to 
true  virtue/'' 

At  the  beginning  of  the  century  in  question, 
there  was  no  Dictionary  of  the  English  language 
which  deserved  the  name.  Not  long  afterwards 
there  appeared  one  superior  to  all  that  had  gone 
before  k,  by  Mr.  Bailey.  This  work,  though 
possessing  considerable  merit,  especially  in  the 
•etymological  department,  was  still  defective  in  so 
many  respects,  that  it  was  by  no  means  a  safe  or 

m  Mr.  Lindley  Murray  is  a  native  of  Pennsylvania,  but  resided  during 
the  early  part  of  his  life  chiefly  in  the  city  of  New-York.  Having  removed 
to  Great-Britain,  for  the  benefit  of  his  health,  he  has  employed  his  leisure, 
tor  a  number  of  years,  in  improving  the  grammar  of  his  native  tongue, 
and  in  making  such  other  publications  as  have  a  tendency  to  form  the 
minds  of  youth  to  a  love  of  literature  and  of  virtue.  The  excellence  of 
all  his  hterary  labours,  and  the  charitable  appropriation  of  the  product  of 
his  works,  to  which  he  has  long  rigidly  adhered,  have  secured  for  him  a 
station  in  the  public  esteem  too  high  to  render  eulogiuw  necessary  in  thj* 

VOL.  II,  P 


106  Modem  Languages. 

adequate  guide.  Bailey  was  succeeded  by  seve- 
ral others  of  inferior  note,  who  laboured  as  English 
lexicographers,  but  they  did  little  worthy  of  being 
recorded.  In  this  state  of  things,  Dr.  Samuel 
Johnson,  a  distinguished  philologist  of  Great- 
Britain,  undertook  to  compile  a  grand  national 
dictionary,  a  task  to  which  learned  academies 
had  generally  been  considered  alone  equal.  His 
plan  of  the  work  was  laid  before  the  public  in 
1747,  and  in  1755  this  wonderful  production  of 
the  labour  of  an  individual  issued  from  the  press. 
It  must  be  acknowledged,  that  the  Dictionary  of 
the  English  Language,  notwithstanding  ali  its 
splendid  merits,  is  an  imperfect  work.  Its  illus- 
trious compiler  was,  in  a  great  measure,  ignorant 
of  the  philosophy  of  language,  which  at  that  period 
was  little  understood  by  the  most  profound  gram- 
marians. His  etymological  investigations  are  too 
often  superficial  and  unsatisfactory;  and  his  nume- 
rous omissions  of  words  unquestionably  belonging 
to  the  language,"  indicate  either  carelessness  or 
haste  in  the  execution  of  his  task.  Added  to  these 
faults,  his  style  of  definition  has  been  criticised  as 
"  loose  and  pedantic;'*  he  has  been  accused  of  a 
needless  and  improper  subdivision  of  meanings; 
and  his  frequent  indulgence  of  a  taste  for  "  neo- 
teric importation  from  the  Latin,"  is  considered, 
by  many,  as  a  departure  from  his  own  principles, 
by  means  of  which  the  purity  of  our  tongue  has 
suffered  injurious  mixtures  and  adulterations.  Still, 
however,  viewing  the  work  of  Johnson  as  the 
production  of  one  man;  recollecting  how  small  a 
portion  of  his  life  it  employed;  considering  its  im- 
mense superiority  to  every  thing  of  a  similar  kind 

n  Dr.  Johnson,  in  his  Dictionary ,  has  collected  about  48,000  words.  The 
Reverend  H.  Croft  asserts  that  he  has  made  a  list  of  11,000  more,  which 
he  proposes  to  introduce  into  a  new  work.  Scs  Wendssorn'-s '  View  of 
Mngland)  &c. 


Modern  Languages.  107 

which  had  gone  before  it;  and  taking  into  the  ac- 
count also,  that  it  was  written  "  with  little  assist- 
ance of  the  learned,  and  without  any  patronage  of 
the  great;  not  in  the  soft  obscurities  of  retirement, 
or  under  the  shelter  of  academic  bowers,  but 
amidst  inconvenience  and  distraction,  in  sickness, 
and  in  sorrow,"  it  must  be  regarded  as  a  won- 
derful monument  of  philological  taste,  erudition, 
and  labour. 

The  English  dictionaries  which  have  been  given 
to  the  public  since  that  of  Dr.  Johnson,  are  nu- 
merous. They  have,  in  general,  however,  con- 
tented themselves  with  servilely  copying  that  great 
lexicographer,  and  have  made  few  important  ad- 
ditions to  his  labours.  To  this  general  character 
Dr.  Ash  is  an  exception :  considering  his  dictionary 
as  a  collection  of  all  kinds  of  words,  scientific, 
technical,  obsolete,  colloquial,  decent,  or  other- 
wise, it  is  doubtless  the  most  complete  extant;  and 
so  far  as  the  mere  number  of  words  is  an  excellence, 
his  work  must  be  pronounced  much  superior  to  that 
of  Johnson.  It  may  fairly  be  questioned,  how- 
ever, whether  such  an  indiscriminate  admission  of 
words  as  Dr.  Ash  has  thought  proper  to  adopt,  be 
not  more  injurious  than  useful.  The  dictionaries 
of  Kenrick,  Sheridan,  Walker,  with  a  com- 
parative view  of  their  respective  merits,  were  be- 
fore noticed.  But  as  these  were  designed  rather 
to  promote  English  Orthoepy  than  the  general  in- 
terests of  our  language,  the  further  consideration  of 
them  will  not  be  attempted  in  this  place. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  eighteenth 
century  has  produced  a  great  extension  of  the 
knowledge  and  use  of  the  English  language. 
Within  the  last  forty  or  fifty  years  this  language 
has  been  gradually  becoming  more  known  among 
the  learned  of  other  countries,  and  its  best  models 
of  composition  more  studied.     Mr.  Pope  is  said 


108  Modern  Languages. 

to  have  lamented  that  his  writings  were  not  likely 
to  be  much  read,  excepting  by  the  inhabitants  of 
one  small  Island.  Had  he  lived  till  the  present 
day  he  would  have  seen  better  prospects  opening 
to  his  literary  ambition.  To  say  nothing  of  the 
immense  continent  of  North- America,  where  the 
productions  of  that  great  Poet  will  probably  long 
be  perused  by  many  millions;  and  to  place  also  out 
of  the  account,  the  extensive  foreign  dependences 
of  Great-Britain,  where  English  literature  is  likely, 
in  time,  to  flourish;  it  is  an  undoubted  fact,  that 
the  language  in  which  he  wrote  is  incomparably 
more  read  and  spoken  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
since  his  day,  than  ever  before. 


FRENCH    LANGUAGE. 

The  French  language,   during  the  last  century, 
received  modifications  and  improvements  in  a  con- 
siderable degree  similar  to  those  which  have  already 
been  noticed  as  belonging  to  the  English.     It  was 
before  remarked  that  this  language  was  some  time 
before  the  English  in  the  progress  of  improvement. 
The  reign  of  Louis  XIV.  has  been  commonly  called 
the  golden  age  of  French  literature,  and  the  period 
of  perfection  in  French  style.     It  is  probable  that 
this  opinion   is   rather  better  founded  than   that 
which  assigns  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  as  furnish- 
ing  the  highest  grade  of  refinement   in  English 
composition.    The  publication  of  the  famous  Die- 
tionnaire  de  V Academic  Francaise,    a   great   and 
splendid  work  in  its  day,  formed  an  important  a?ra 
in  the  history  of  the  French  language.    The  grand 
object  of  the  Association  which  compiled  this  Dic- 
tionary, and  presented  it  to  the  world,  was  to  im- 
prove and  fix  their  language;  and  there  can  be  no 


Modern  Languages.  1 09 

doubt  that  the  publication  was,  in  a  considerable 
tier"  -  servient  to  these  purposes. 

But  to  expect  a  living  language  to  be  absolutely 
.onarv,  is  to  expect  that  which  borders  on  the 
region  of  i  impossibility.  Accordingly,  since  the 
completion  of  the  great  national  dictionary  just 
mentioned,  the  French  language  has  gained  large 
accessions  of  words  and  phrases,  and  has  received 
various  kinds  of  melioration.  The  work  of  the 
Academy  has  long  been  superseded  by  the  private 
and  better  Dictionary  of  M.  Richelet,  which  has 
been  honoured  with  high  and  general  praise.  But 
even  this  latter  is  far  from  embracing  the  numerous 
additional  words  with  which  learned  philologists 
of  that  country  have  endowed  their  language. 

The  large  work  of  M.  Court  de  Gebelin,  on 
language,  published  a  few  years  ago,  contains  an 
extensive  and  learned  investigation  of  French  Ety- 
mology, which  has  thrown  new  light  on  the  struc- 
ture and  genius  of  that  language.  Indeed,  within 
the  last  thirty  years  of  the  century  under  consider- 
ation, several  writers  of  high  reputation,  but  of 
whom  the  author  has  too  little  knowledge  to  speak 
distinctly,  have  undertaken,  with  considerable 
success,  to  exhibit  the  beauties  and  defects  of  their 
native  tongue,  and  to  point  out  the  means  for  its 
further  refinement. 

The  list  of  those  writers  who  contributed,  in 
the  course  of  the  last  century,  to  enrich  and  polish 
the  French  language,  is  too  large  to  be  given  at 
length,  even  if  the  information  requisite  for  this 
purpose  were  possessed .  Out  of  the  great  number, 
Fontenelle,  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and  Buffon, 
deserve  to  be  selected,  as  standing  in  the  first  rank. 
Since  the  date  of  their  writings  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  the  language  has  gained  any  real  i\  ele- 
ments. If  an  air  of  metaphysical  a  Infraction, 
and  antithetic  point,   be  more  prevalent  among 


1 10  Modern  Languages. 

some  late  popular  writers  of  that  country  than 
formerly,  it  is  believed  no  substantial  improvements 
have  been  made  in  the  vigour,  the  polish,  the  pre- 
cision, and  the  chaste  ornaments  of  French  style. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  cen-~ 
tury,  it  is  probable  that  there  was  no  living  lan- 
guage so  generally  understood,  and  so  correctly 
spoken,  among  the  learned  of  all  civilized  countries, 
as  the  French.  It  was  then  spoken  as  the  most 
polite  medium  of  intercourse  at  several  of  the 
courts  of  Europe,  and  the  acquisition  of  it  consi- 
dered as  an  important  part  of  liberal  education. 
Since  that  time  the  knowledge  and  use  of  this  lan- 
guage have  greatly  extended.  It  has,  in  fact,  al- 
most become,  what  the  Latin  once  was,  an  uni- 
versal language.  Perhaps  it  may  be  asserted  that 
a  larger  portion  of  mankind,  at  the  present  day, 
understand  and  speak  this  language,  than  were 
ever  before  known  to  be  acquainted  with  a  living 
tongue.0 


GERMAN    LANGUAGE. 

The  German  Language,  in  the  course  of  this 
century,  has  been  greatly  enriched  and  refined. 
Until  the  middle  of  the  century  it  remained  in  a 
rude  and  unpolished  state.     Such  of  the  learned 

o  Some  remarks  on  modern  improvements  in  the  Spanish  language, 
would  naturally  follow  this  section,  if  the  author  were  sufficiently  acquainted 
with  the  nature  and  amount  of  these  improvements  to  make  even  general 
remarks  on  them.  It  may  not  be  improper,  however,  to  mention,  that 
the  Royal  Spanish  Academy  of  Madrid,  founded  in  1713,  was  instituted  for 
the  express  purpose  of  cultivating  and  improving  the  national  language. 
With  this  view,  after  spending  many  years  in  the  requisite  preliminary  in- 
vestigations; after  devoting  much  attention  to  the  selection  of  such  words 
and  phrases  as  were  used  by  the  best  writers,  and  noting  those  which 
were  either  low,  corrupt  or  obsolete,  that  learned  Society  published,  in 
I783,  the  Diccionario  de  la  Lengua  Castellana ;  a  work,  which,  though  defec- 
tive in  etymological  inquiries,  and  in  several  other  respects,  is  yet  by  far  the 
best  extant. 


Modern  Languages.  Ill 

men  of  that  country  as  had  then  devoted  them- 
selves to  philology,  chiefly  studied  the  ancient  lan- 
guages, to  the  neglect  of  their  own.  Most  of 
their  scientific  publications  then  made  were  in 
Latin.  Since  that  time  more  has  been  done  to 
promote  the  interests  of  German  literature,  and 
especially  to  cultivate  the  German  language,  than 
had  been  done  for  several  centuries  before.  One 
of  the  first  steps  in  this  course  of  cultivation  was 
the  publication  of  the  Messiah,  by  Klopstock. 
"When  that  celebrated  poem  made  its  appearance, 
the  many  new  combinations  of  words,  and  the  va- 
rious licences  of  language  with  which  it  abounded, 
excited  much  complaint  among  the  countrymen  of 
the  author;  but  these  innovations  soon  became  fa- 
miliar, gradually  gained  admirers,  and  at  no  great 
distance  of  time  were  generally  adopted,  by  the 
best  German  writers.  Klopstock  was  particularly 
successful  in  improving  the  versification  of  his  na- 
tive language.  He  introduced  a  new  style  of  poe- 
try into  his  country;  and  has  been  generally  fol- 
lowed as  one  of  the  best  authorities  in  polite  lite- 
rature. This  celebrated  poet  has  also  done  much 
to  improve  the  orthography  of  his  language.  He 
first  suggested,  and  by  his  own  example  enforced, 
the  propriety  and  necessity  of  reform  in  this  de- 
partment of  the  German  tongue.  His  proposals, 
indeed,  were  not  adopted  in  their  full  extent;  but 
they  led  others  to  direct  their  attention  towards 
this  object;  and  to  him  therefore  is  due  a  large 
share  of  the  credit  arising  from  the  improvements 
which  have  since  taken  place/ 

Next  to  the  radical  reform  introduced  by  Klop- 
stock, the  writings  of  many  others  of  the  literati 
of  that  country  have  had  a  considerable  influence 
in  promoting  the  same  object,     Among  these  the 

/>  Monthly  Magazine,     Londos,  vol.  V.  p.  %Zo% 


112  Modern  Languages. 

poems  of  Haller;  the  Idylls,  and  Death  of  Abel \ 
of  Gessner  ;  the  fables  and  moral  writings  of  Gel- 
lert;  the  numerous  and  diversified  productions  of 
Wieland;  and  the  various  works  of  Lessing,  Her- 
der, Goethe,  Schiller,  Voss,  and  many  others, 
have  all  contributed  a  share,  to  render  a  language 
once  but  little  esteemed  in  Europe,  one  of  the  most 
copious,  energetic,  and  rich  of  modern  tongues. 

But  among  late  German  writers  no  individual  is 
entitled  to  more  honourable  mention  than  J.  C. 
Adelung,  a  celebrated  philologist  of  that  country. 
His  labours  in  studying  and  improving  his  native 
language  have  been  extensive,  persevering,  and 
successful  to  a  degree  almost  without  precedent. 
He  has  produced  works,  in  this  department  of  li- 
terature, with  which  the  productions  of  learned 
academies,  and  royal  societies,  can  scarcely  be 
brought  into  competition.  His  Grammar  of  the 
German  Language1  is  an  elaborate  and  systematic 
work,  unquestionably  superior  to  all  preceding 
works  of  a  similar  kind,  and  has  contributed  much 
towards  forming  and  regulating  the  language  of 
which  it  treats.  But  his  greatest  work  is  a  Com- 
plete Dictionary  of  the  High  German  Language* 
In  the  composition  of  this  extraordinary  work  he 
spent  the  greatest  part  of  thirty  years,  and  it  is 
pronounced,  by  good  judges,  to  come  nearer  to 
the  idea  of  a  perfect  dictionary  than  any  other  ef- 
fort of  human  diligence  hitherto  published.  It 
contains  a  larger  number  of  words  than  any  other 
extant ;  the  definitions  are  singularly  lucid  and  satis- 
factory ;  every  word  is  scientifically  arranged,  with 
respect  to  its  literal  and  metaphorical  signification; 
the  etymologies  of  words  are  pursued  with  an  acute- 
ness  and  a  skill  which  render  them  highly  instruc- 


q  In  two  volumes  large  octavo. 

r  It  consists  of  five  volumes  large  quarto. 


Modern  Languages.  US 

tive;  and  the  author  displays  an  acquaintance  with 
the  history  of  his  language,  and  the  peculiar  merits 
of  its  best  authors,  which  eminently  qualified  him 
for  the  task  which  he  undertook  to  execute. 

This  grammar  and  dictionary,  we  are  told,  have 
been  useful,  beyond  any  other  publications,  in 
correcting  the  orthography,  in  exploring  the  ety- 
mology, and  in  regulating  the  syntax  of  the  Ger- 
man language.  The  incessant  efforts  of  Adelung 
have  also  served  to  animate  and  guide  the  exertions 
of  his  countrymen  in  pursuit  of  the  same  object. 
Since  he  wrote,  philological  inquiries  have  acquired 
an  ascendency  and  a  prevalence  in  that  empire 
Which  they  never  before  possessed.  Grammars, 
dictionaries,  and  critical  essays,  have  unusually 
abounded.  Questions  for  elucidating  and  improv- 
ing the  language  have  been  published  by  acade- 
mies and  literary  associations  in  every  part  of  the 
country,  and  have  occupied  much  of  the  attention 
of  learned  men.  And,  finally,  their  popular  writers, 
especially  their  poets  and  dramatists,  are  continu- 
ally adding  to  the  stores  of  the  language,  new 
words,  and  combinations  of  terms,  which,  though 
in  some  cases  they  have  been  considered  as  inju- 
rious innovations,  have  yet  contributed  not  a  little 
to  the  mass  of  improvement. 

This  language,  as  well  as  the  two  preceding,  has 
been  much  more  studied  towards  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  than  ever  before.  So  many  in- 
teresting works  in  literature  and  science  have  been 
published  in  Germany,  particularly  within  the  last 
thirty  years,  that  the  acquisition  of  the  language 
seems  now  to  be  regarded  by  the  literati  of  Europe 
as  nearly  of  equal  importance  with  that  of  the 
French  or  English,  which  have,  heretofore,  en- 
gaged such  pre-eminent  attention. 


VOL.  II. 


114 


SWEDISH  LANGUAGE. 


The  Swedish  Language,  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  past,  has  also  undergone  great  improvements. 
Previous  to  the  middle  of  the  century,  it  had  been 
much  neglected,  and,  like  its  kindred  dialects, 
the  German  and  the  Danish,  was  but  little  esteemed 
in  Europe.  About  that  time  John  Ihre,  Pro- 
fessor of  Belles  Lettres  in  the  University  of  Upsal, 
was  commissioned,  by  Queen  Ulrica  Eleonora, 
to  translate  into  Swedish  The  Ladies'  Library, 
by  Sir  Richard  Steele.  In  obeying  this  com- 
mand, he  was  naturally  led  not  only  to  study  his 
native  language,  but  also  to  compare  it  with  the 
more  polished  tongue  from  which  the  translation 
was  to  be  made.  The  result  of  these  inquiries 
was  an  attempt  to  place  the  language  of  his  coun- 
try on  a  more  respectable  footing  than  it  had  be- 
fore held.  With  this  view  he  published  his  Glos- 
surium  S'ueo-Gothiatm,  which  displays  great  eru- 
dition, the  talents  of  a  master  in  criticism,  and  un- 
common sagacity  in  detecting  both  the  faults  and 
the  beauties  which  he  wished  to  make  known.  In 
this  work  the  author  exhibits,  with  great  skill,  the 
analogy  and  etymology  of  the  Swedish  language; 
and  may  be  regarded  as  standing  with  the  highest 
in  rank  among  its  distinguished  cultivators  and 
reformers. 

Since  the  time  of  Mr.  Ihre  other  wTriters  have 
employed  their  talents  on  the  same  subject.  These 
writers  have  established  rules  of  construction,  cor- 
rected the  orthography,  discarded  foreign  phrases 
and  corrupt  modes  of  expression,  and  by  producing 
works  in  a  correct,  elegant,  and  refined  style,  have 
done  much  to  improve  their  native  tongue.  Among 
these,  Dahlix,  Botin,   Gyllenborg,  Creutze, 


Modern  Languages.       %  115 

Klewberg,  Leopold,  and  Lidner,  are  perhaps 
entitled  to  the  most  honourable  mention,  and  fur- 
nish examples  of  Swedish  style  according  to  its 
latest  and  best  improvements..  In  1786  a  literary 
association,  under  the  name  of  the  Swedish  Aca- 
demy, was  established  at  Stockholm.  The  prin- 
cipal object  of  this  institution  is  to  cultivate  the 
language  of  that  country;  with  which  view  it  is 
said  to  be  preparing  for  publication  a  national 
Grammar  and  Dictionary. s 


RUSSIAN    LANGUAGE. 

The  Russian  Language,  during  the  period  under 
review,  has  also  been  much  and  successfully  cul- 
tivated. This  language,  which  is  a  dialect  of  the 
Sclavonian,  was,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  in  a  wretchedly  irregular  and  neglected 
condition,  very  few  compositions  of  dignified  cha- 
racter having  then  appeared  in  it.  Since  that 
time  it  has  employed  much  of  the  attention  of 
learned  men ;  grammars  and  dictionaries  have  been 
formed,  with  many  successive  improvements;  nu- 
merous translations  from  other  languages  have  con- 
tributed greatly  to  enrich  and  polish  it;  the  Rus- 
sian academy  has  long  been  diligently  engaged  in 
its  cultivation;  and  writers  of  taste  have  done 
much  to  confer  upon  it  regularity  and  ornament. 
Previous  to  the  year  1707  the  alphabet  of  this  lan- 
guage consisted  of  thirty-nine  letters.  In  that 
year  it  was  newly  modified,  and  reduced  to  thirty. 
These  are  chierly  made  up  of  Greek  and  Roman 
letters,  together  with  some  characters,  to  express 
sounds,  which  are  peculiar  to  theSclavonian  tongue. 
Though  the  language  of  Russia  is  still  imperfecta 

i   Sec  A  General  View  of  Szvedert,  by  M.  Catte.\u. 


116  Modern  Languages. 

it  is  said,  by  those  who  have  studied  it,  to  be  re- 
markably rich,  harmonious,  and  energetic,  and 
well  fitted  for  every  species  of  composition/ 

Among  the  improvers  of  Russian  style,  in  the 
last  century,  the  first  place  is  due  to  Theophanes 
Prokopovitch,  Archbishop  of  Novogorod,  a  gen-, 
tleman  of  learning  and  taste,  who,  during  the 
reign  of  Peter  the  Great,  laboured  much  to  pro- 
mote, among  his  countrymen,  a  fondness  for  polite 
literature,  and  especially  to  encourage  the  study 
of  their  native  tongue.  He  was  followed  by  Lo- 
monozof,  a  distinguished  poet  and  historian.  He, 
as  well  as  Theophanes,  was  a  Russian  by  birth, 
and  is  stiled  the  "  great  refiner'*  of  the  language  of 
his  country.  Next  to  him  stands  Sumorokof,  a 
distinguished  dramatist,  who  displayed  many  beau- 
ties of  composition,  which  were  before  unknown 
in  the  Russian  language;  and  contributed  greatly 
to  the  diffusion  of  a  taste  for  poetry,  and  a  zeal  for 
philological  and  other  polite  acquirements.  To 
these  may  be  added  the  name  of  Kheraskof,  the 
author  of  the  first  Epic  Poem  in  his  native  language, 
a  work  greatly  admired  by  his  countrymen,  and 
the  appearance  of  which  may  be  considered  as 
forming  an  era  in  the  history  of  their  poetry,  and, 
generally,  in  the  progress  of  their  literary  cha- 
racter." 

In  order  to  spread  a  taste  for  literature  among 
her  subjects,  Catharine  II.  in  1768,  appointed  a 
committee  to  order  and  superintend  translations  of 
the  classics,  and  the  best  modern  authors,  into  the 
Russian  tongue;  and  made  a  liberal  allowance  for 
defraying  the  expense  of  the  undertaking.  In 
consequence  of  this  order,  a  considerable  number 
of  the  most  esteemed  Greek  and  Roman  writers, 

*  Coxe's  Travels  into  Russia,  &c.  vol.  ii.  chap.  viii.  and  also  Tooke's 

JTleiu  of  the  Russian  Empirt. 

v  Coxe's  Travels  into  Hussia.     B.  v.  c,  viii. 


Modern  Languages .  117 

and  some  of  the  first  class  in  the  English,  French, 
and  German  languages,  became  naturalized  in  her 
empire."  Those  who  have  any  acquaintance  with 
philology  will  readily  perceive,  that  the  attempt  to 
transfer  the  contents  of  these  rich,  refined,  and 
regular  languages  into  one  less  cultivated,  must 
always  issue  in  communicating  more  or  less  of  the 
excellences  possessed  by  the  former  to  the  latter. 


Besides  the  numerous  and  important  improve- 
ments in  the  more  cultivated  languages,  for  which 
the  eighteenth  century  is  distinguished,  we  may 
also  mention,  as  a  peculiarity  of  the  age,  equally 
worthy  of  remark,  the  extensive  knowledge  which 
has  been  acquired,  by  learned  philologists,  within 
a  few  years  past,  of  many  other  living  languages, 
even  some  of  the  most  barbarous  and  unpolished. 
The  amount  of  information  communicated  by 
modern  voyagers  and  travellers  on  subjects  of  this 
nature,  is  great  and  valuable.  Among  these 
Strahlenberg,  Sonnerat,  Marsden,  Thun- 
berg,  Forster,  and  many  others,  are  entitled  to 
honourable  distinction. 

The  idea  of  tracing  the  origin  and  history  of  na- 
tions through  the  medium  of  inquiries  into  their 
respective  languages,  if  not  first  conceived,  was  cer- 
tainly first  reduced  to  practice,  to  any  considerable 
extent,  in  the  century  under  review.  It  is  believed 
that  the  first  considerable  specimen  of  an  inquiry 
of  this  nature  was  given  by  Air.  Jacob  Bryant, 
of  Great-Britain,  a  gentleman  whose  profound 
erudition,  critical  sagacity,  and  unwearied  labour, 
are  anions  the  signal  honours  of  the  a«e.w     Neariv 


u  Coxe's  Travels  into  Russia. 

iv  It  is  impossible  for  any  friend  te  virtue  and  sound  learning  to  pro- 
nounce the  name  of  this  veteran  in  literature  without  veneration.  In  hi* 
Observations  and  Inquiries  relating  to  -various  farts  of  Ancient  History ,  and  ir. 


118  Modern  Languages \ 


t>  ~  "o  ■ 


about  the  same  time  appeared  the  celebrated  and 
voluminous  work  of  M.  Court  de  Gebelin,  be- 
fore mentioned,  in  which,  with  great  learning, 
but  with  perhaps  less  judgment,  he  has  investigated 
the  history  of  nations  through  the  same  medium/ 

Large  and  curious  collections  of  languages  re- 
markably abounded  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
Among  these  the  collection  of  J.Lorenzo  Her  v  as, 
a  native  of  Spain,  but  residing  at  Rome,  deserves 
respectful  notice.  This  learned  man,  in  his  great 
work,  entitled  Idea  del  U?iiverso,  gave  a  general 
synopsis  of  all  known  languages,  their  affinities, 
differences,  &c.  of  which  the  best  judges  have 
spoken  in  terms  of  high  praise.  Of  later  date,  the 
Philosophical  and  Critical  Estimate  of  Fourteen 
Ancient  and  Modern  European  Languages,  by  D. 
Jeniscii,  of  Germany,  is  also  a  valuable  acquisi- 
tion to  the  student  of  philology, 

But  the  most  extensive  collection  of  modern 
languages  which  the  last  age  produced,  was  that 
formed,  toward  the  close  of  it,  by  the  learned  aca- 
demicians of  St.  Petersburgh,  in  Russia.  The 
Empress  Catharine  II.  conceived  the  vast  design 
of  compiling  an  i(  Universal  and  Comparative  Vo- 
cabulary of  all  Languages,"  and  ordered  such  a 
work  to  be  undertaken.  Accordingly  M.  Pallas, 
a  distinguished  member  of  the  Imperial  Academy 
of  Sciences,  assisted  by  a  number  of  other  learned 
men,  engaged  in  the  arduous  task,  and  laid  the 
first  part  of  the  work  before  the  public  in  1786, 
and  another  portion  of  it  three  years  afterwards. 

his  New  System,  or  Analysis  cf  Ancient  Mythology,  he  has  displayed  an  ex- 
tent, and  a  minuteness  of  information  truly  Avonderful ,  perhaps  unequalled 
by  any  other  individual  living ;  and  a  degree  of  critical  acumen,  and  philo- 
sophic soberness  of  inquiry,  joined  with  a  love  of  truth,  and  especially  of 
Evangelic  truth,  which  entitle  him  to  the  lasting  gratitude  both  of  the  phi- 
losopher and  the  christian. 

x  Mondt  Ptimitif  analyse  et  Compart,  avec  It  Monde  Moderne.  9  tom, 
<4to. 


Modern  Languages.  119 

This  Comparative  Vocabulary*  may  justly  be 
ranked  among  the  wonders  of  the  century.  Soe- 
cimens  of  so  great  a  number  of  languages  were 
certainly  never  before  brought  together  by  human 
diligence.  And  the  work,  while  it  reflects  great 
honour  on  the  illustrious  editor,  and  his  learned 
coadjutors,  and  on  the  public  spirit  of  their  em- 
ployer and  patron,  the  Empress,  furnishes  most 
instructive  documents,  not  only  towards  the  for- 
mation of  an  enlightened  theory  of  language,  but 
also  for  investigating  the  history  of  man. 

The  Celtic  or  Gaelic  language  was  the  object  of 
much  inquiry,  by  a  number  of  learned  men  of  the 
last  century.  Grammars  and  dictionaries  of  its 
different  dialects  were  formed,  and  new  lio-Jit 
thrown  on  the  structure  and  probable  history  of  the 
language.  In  these  inquiries  Pelloutier,  Bul- 
let, Jones,  Mallet,  and  Shaw  were  much  and 
honourably  distinguished.  The  Gothic,  in  several 
of  its  most  important  dialects,  was  also  diligently 
and  successfully  investigated,  during  the  last  age, 
byWACHTER,  Schilter,  Ihre,  Lye,  and  several 
other  learned  philologists. 

Much  valuable  information  was  obtained,  dur- 
ing the  same  period,  concerning  the  languages  of 
the  aboriginal  nations  residing  on  the  American 
continent.  For  collecting  this  information,  and 
communicating  it  to  the  public,  we  are  indebted  to 
Charlevoix,  Carver,  Adair,  Long,  Clavigero, 
Reverend  Mr.  Zeisberger/  Reverend  Dr.  Ed- 


y  Ltnguarum  totius  Orlis  Vocabularia  Comparatha ;  Augustiss'ima  cura  col- 
beta.  Lectionis  Prima,  Linguas  Europe  et  Asie  complex*,  pars  prior.  Pe- 
tropol.  1786.  4to.  et  Pars  Secunda.     Fetropol.  1 7 89.  4to. 

z  Mr,  Zejsbkrger  was  a  respectable  missionary,  sent  by  the  United 
Brethren  to  preach  the  gospel  among  the  Indians.  His  work  referred  to 
IS  an  Essay  of  a  Delaivare-Indian,  and  English  Spelling-Book,  printed  at  Phi- 
ladelphia in  1776.  Besides  this  gentleman,  several  other  persons,  belong- 
ing to  the  same  religious  communion,  have  contributed  much  to  the  eluci- 
dation of  Indian  languages.     Among  these,  Mr.  Pvrljeus,  many  vears 


120  Modem  Languages. 

wards/  and  many  other  gentlemen  of  observa- 
tion and  diligence.  Mr.  Jefferson,  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  has  also  made  much  in- 
quiry into  the  languages  of  the  American  Indians* 
and  devoted  considerable  attention  to  the  collec- 
tion of  specimens.  But  there  is  certainly  no  indi- 
vidual to  whom  we  are  under  so  many  obligations 
for  investigating  these  languages,  and  presenting 
rich  vocabularies  to  the  public,  as  Professor  Bar- 
ton, of  Philadelphia,  whose  name  we  have  had 
occasion  to  mention  so  frequently,  and  with  so 
much  respect,  in  several  of  the  preceding  chapters 
of  this  work.  This  gentleman  has  made  large  col- 
lections of  Indian  languages,6  which  he  has,  with 
great  learning  and  ingenuity,  compared  with  each 
other,  and  with  some  of  the  languages  of  the  eastern 
continent.  By  these  investigations  he  has,  not 
only  in  his  own  opinion,  but  also  in  the  judgment 
of  many  of  his  best  informed  readers,  satisfactorily 
proved,  that  there  is  but  one  radical  language 
among  the  Indians  on  the  American  Continent;  and 
that  the  nations  of  America  and  those  of  Asia  have 


ago  a  missionary  to  some  of  the  American  tribes,  and  Mr.  Heckewelder, 
who  at  this  time  holds  an  important  station  in  a  western  mission,  deserve 
to  be  mentioned  with  particular  distinction,  and  with  many  acknowledge 
ments,  for  their  unwearied  and  intelligent  inquiries  on  this  subject. 

a  Jonathan  Edwards,  D.  D.  late  President  of  Union  College,  at 
Schenectady;  the  excellent  Son  of  a  still  more  illustrious  Father,  whose 
name  was  mentioned  in  a  former  chapter.  Besides  the  great  learning  and 
talents  displayed  by  this  gentleman  on  various  theological  subjects,  which 
will  be  noticed  in  their  proper  place,  he  published  Observations  on  the  Lan- 
guage of  the  Muhhekanceiv  Indians,  &c.  New-Haven,  1 788,  in  which,  with 
a  number  of  ingenious  remarks  on  the  structure  and  genius  of  the  lan- 
guage, he  gave  some  curious  specimens  of  its  vocabulary. 

b  See  Ne iv  V'uivs  of  the  Origin  of  the  Tribes  and  Nations  of  America,  8  V0» 
1798,  second  edition. 

c  The  following  passage  from  Dr.  Barton's  work  is  thought  worthy 
of  being  inserted  at  length : 

"  The  inference  from  these  facts  and  observations  is  obvious  and  interest- 
ing: that  hitherto  we  have  not  discovered  more  than  one  radical  lan- 
guage in  the  two  Americas ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  hitherto  we  have 
not  discovered  in  America  any  two,  or  more,  languages  between  which 


Modern  Languages.  121 

The  enemies  of  Revelation,  half  a  century  ago, 
laid  great  stress,  not  only  on  the  diversity  of  com- 
plexion andjigure,  but  also  on  the  variety  of  lan- 
guages among  men,  as  arguments  for  discrediting 
the  sacred  history.  Both  these  arguments,  by  later 
investigations,  have  been  clearly  refuted.  Indeed, 
modern  inquiries  into  the  languages  of  different 
nations,  instead  of  giving  countenance  to  the  re- 
jection of  the  sacred  volume,  have  rather  served 
to  illustrate  and  confirm  its  historical  records;  for 
they  have  resulted,  if  not  in  complete  proof,  at 
least  in  establishing  the  highest  probability,  that 
all  languages  bear  an  affinity  to  each  other;  that 
they  may  all  be  traced  to  a  common  stock;  and 
that  we  have  reason  to  conclude,  independently 
of  the  Mosaic  history,  that  the  human  race  sprang 
from  a  single  pair. 


we  are  incapable  of  detecting  affinities  (and  those  often  very  striking)  ei« 
ther  in  America,  or  in  the  old  world.  Nothing  is  more  common  than  for 
Indian  traders,  interpreters,  or  other  persons,  to  assert,  that  such  and  such 
languages  bear  no  relation  to  each  other ;  because,  it  seems,  that  the  per- 
sons speaking  them  cannot  always  understand  one  another.  When  these 
very  languages,  however,  are  compared,  their  relations,  or  affinities,  are 
found  out.  It  is  by  such  comparisons  that  I  have  ascertained,  that  the 
language  of  the  Delaware*  is  the  language  of  such  a  great  number  of  tribes 
in  America.  It  is  by  such  comparisons,  that  future  inquirers  may  discover, 
that  in  all  the  vast  countries  of  America  there  is  but  one  language :  such 
inquiries,  perhaps,  will  even  prove,  or  render  it  highly  probable,  that  all 
the  languages  of  the  earth  bear  some  affinity  to  each  other.  I  have  already 
discovered  some  striking  affinities  between  the  language  of  the  Yolofs  (one 
of  the  blackest  nations  of  Africa)  and  certain  American  tribes.  What  a 
field  for  investigation  does  this  last  mentioned  circumstance  open !  Whilst 
philosophers  are  busied  in  investigating  the  influence  of  climate  and  food, 
and  other  physical  agents,  in  varying  the  figure  and  complexion  of  man- 
kind, they  should  not  neglect  inquiries  into  the  resemblances  of  all  lan- 
guages. Hie  farther  we  push  our  researches  of  this  kind,  the  more  we 
discover  the  proofs,  if  not  of  the  absolute  derivation  of  all  mankind  from 
<we  pair,  at  least  of  the  ancient  intercourse  of  all  the  nations  of  the  earth." 


VOL.   II, 


(      122      ) 


CHAPTER  XVI. 


PHILOSOPHY    OF    LANGUAGE. 

UNDER  this  head  it  is  intended  to  present  a 
brief  and  general  view  of  those  inquiries  into  the 
Origin  and  Progress  of  Language,  and  of  Universal 
"Grammar,  which  have  been  pursued  with  so  much 
success  in  modern  times.  These,  it  is  believed, 
are  in  a  great  measure  peculiar  to  the  period  under 
consideration;  or,  at  least,  have  been  conducted 
more  extensively  and  more  successfully  than  ever 
before. 

The  Origin  of  language  is  a  question  concern- 
ing which  disputes  have  been  long  and  warmly 
maintained;  some  contending  that  it  is  an  inven- 
tion of  man,  gradually  growing  from  rude  inarti- 
culate cries,  into  a  regular,  polished,  and  syste- 
matic form,  in  the  progress  of  civilization;  and 
others  asserting  that  it  must  have  been  revealed 
from  heaven.  This  controversy  arose  many  cen- 
turies before  that  which  is  now  under  review;  but 
in  no  preceding  age  was  it  ever  considered  in  a 
manner  so  extensive,  learned,  and  satisfactory. 
The  former  opinion  was  defended  with  great  zeal, 
erudition,  and  ingenuity,  by  Lord  Mokboddo/  of 
North-Britain;  by  Father  Simon:,  M.  Voltaire, 
and  the  Abbe  Condillac,  of  France;  and  by  M. 

d  Lord  Monboddo  supposes  that  language  is  not  natural  to  man ;  that 
men  sang  before  they  spake;  that  before  they  arrived  at  the  point  at  which 
language  began  to  be  used,  they  conversed  together  by  signs  and  inarticu- 
late cries ;  that  from  these  latter  language  was  gradually  formed  ;  that  all 
languages  are  derived  from  Egypt,  the  great  source  of  science  and  cultiva- 
tion ;  that  the  Egyptian  language  is  the  same  with  the  Sanscrit,  or  sacred 
language  of  India,  of  which  the  Greek  is  a  dialect.  See  his  Origin  and 
Progress  of  Language, 


Philosophy  of  Language.  123 

Herder/  and  others,  of  Germany.  The  latter 
doctrine  was  adopted,  and  maintained,  during  the 
period  under  consideration,  by  M.  Sussmilch,  Dr. 
Beattie,  Dr.  Blair,  and  by  many  other  writers, 
who  have  treated  either  formally  or  indirectly  on 
the  subject. 

The  true  nature  and  philosophy  of  language,  or 
the  principles  of  Universal  Grammar,  seem  to  have 
eluded  the  inquiries  of  the  most  sagacious  for  many 
centuries.  A  multitude  of  writers  of  the  first 
character,  from  Plato  down  to  Leibnitz,  treated 
largely  and  ably  on  the  subject;  but  they  did  little 
more  than  to  copy  the  mistakes  of  each  other,  or 
to  present  a  succession  of  delusive  systems,  which 
would  not  bear  the  test  of  more  enlightened  exa- 
mination. Though  this  may  appear  strange  to  a 
careless  or  superficial  inquirer,  yet  when  the  ex- 
treme difficulty  of  the  subject  is  duly  appreciated, 
it  will  no  longer  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  so 
many  great  men  should,  in  their  investigations, 
have  gone  so  wide  of  the  mark. 

After  the  many  preceding  failures  to  examine 
wTith  success  the  philosophy  of  language,  Mr. 
Locke  undertook  the  task,  in  his  great  work  on  the 
Human  Understanding?  But  while  he  threw  much 
light  on  the  doctrines  of  mind,  and  treated  more 
successfully  than  any  preceding  writer  of  the  com- 
position and  use  of  terms,  he  did  little  to  advance 
the  knowledge  of  universal  grammar.  His  suc- 
cessor, Dr.  Hartley/  assuming  different  ground, 
attempted  also  to  form  an  analysis  of  language, 
and  to  present  a  philosophical  view  of  the  subject. 
But,  like  his  predecessors,  his  labours  served  only 

e  Herder  accounts  for  the  origin  of  language  on  mechanical  principles, 
or  by  combining  the  organical  structure  of  the  body  with  the  faculties  of 
the  mind  which  inhabit  it,  and  the  circumstances  in  which  the  being  i§ 
placed,  in  whom  this  organization  and  these  faculties  are  united. 

/  Essay  on  Human  Understanding.    Vol.  II.  book  ill. 

2  Observations  on  Man.     Vol.  I.  chap.  iii.  sect.  t. 


124  Philosophy  of  Language. 

to  show  more  clearly  than  ever,  the  importance^ 
the  profundity,  and  the  difficulty  of  the  inquiry. 

Dr.  Hartley  was  followed  by  Mr.  James 
Harris,  a  learned  English  gentleman,  who,  in  his 
Hermes,  professed  to  treat  this  subject  in  a  formal 
and  systematic  manner/  He  acknowledges  him- 
self to  be  indebted  for  some  of  the  leading  prin- 
ciples of  his  system  to  Apollonius,  a  learned 
grammarian  of  Alexandria;  but  he  is,  perhaps, 
still  more  indebted  to  Professor  Perizonius,  a 
celebrated  philologist  of  Leyden,  who,  early  in 
the  century,  in  his  notes  on  Sanctii  Minerva,  de- 
livered nearly  the  same  doctrines;  so  nearly,  in- 
deed, that  good  judges  have  denied  to  Mr.  Harris 
the  honour  of  having  made  any  important  improve- 
ment upon  them. 

The  system  of  grammar  taught  in  Hermes  is  the 
following.  The  author  divides  all  words  into 
two  grand  classes,  called  Principals  and  Accessories. 
The  former  he  subdivides  into  two  branches,  Sub- 
stantives and  Attributives ;  the  latter  into  two  others, 
Definitives  and  Connectives ;  so  that  under  one  of 
these  four  species,  Substantives,  Attributives,  De- 
finitives,  or  Connectives,  he  includes  all  the  varie- 
ties of  words.  He  considers  articles,  conjunctions, 
and  prepositions,  as  having  no  signification  of 
their  own,  but  as  deriving  a  meaning  only  from 
their  connection  with  other  terms.  On  these  lead- 
ing principles  his  boasted  fabric  rests. 

Mr.  Harris  was  doubtless  a  learned  and  inge- 
nious man;  but  as  some  of  the  best  judges  utterly 
deny  that  his  doctrines  of  general  grammar  are 
either  original  or  just,  it  is  not  probable  that  they 
will  long  be  considered  as  doing  him  much  honour. 
His  work,  however,  was,  for  many  years,  re- 
ceived with  high  approbation,  not  only  in  the  na- 

h  See   Hertrits,  or  a  philosophical  Inquiry  concerning  Universal  Grammar* 


Philosophy  of  Language.  125 

live  country  of  the  author,  but  also  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  and  has,  even  yet,  many  ardent 
admirers. 

About  the  time  that  Mr.  Harris  laid  his  doc- 
trines before  the  public,  the  philosophy  of  gram- 
mar was  an  object  of  laborious  and  learned  in- 
quiry at  the  celebrated  Greek  school  of  Leyden 
In  these  investigations  the  great  Schultens,  and 
after  him  Professor  Hemsterhuis,  and  his  disci- 
ples, made  a  distinguished  figure.  Schultens  ex- 
amined the  derivation  and  structure  of  the  Greek 
language  with  great  care,  and  particularly  gave 
some  new  and  interesting  views  of  Greek  particles. 
Afterwards  Professor  Hemsterhuis  undertook  to 
derive  the  whole  Greek  language  from  a  few  short 
primitives,  on  a  plan  entirely  original.  His  spe- 
culations were  carried  further,  and  received  new 
light,  by  means  of  the  inquiries  of  his  pupils  Valc- 
kenaer,  Lennep,  and  others.  Though  the  la- 
bours of  these  great  philologists  were  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  Greek  language,  yet  they  were  in- 
tended to  throw  light  on  Universal  Grammar, 
and  to  educe  principles  applicable  to  all  languages. 
To  give  even  a  brief  account  of  the  various  opi- 
nions which  they  taught  would  require  a  more 
intimate  acquaintance  with  them  than  the  writer 
of  this  retrospect  possesses,  and  would  lead  to  a 
detail  inconveniently  and  disproportionably  ex- 
tended. It  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  though  they 
failed  to  form  a  fair,  consistent,  and  regular  fa- 
bric, yet  they  furnished  many  insulated  facts,  and 
useful  materials,  and  analysed  many  words  and 
classes  of  terms,  in  a  manner  which  did  them  great 
honour,  and  rendered  important  aid  to  the  philo- 
sophical grammarian.2 

2  For  some  further  information  concerning  the  celebrated  Dutch  ety- 
mologists above  mentioned,  see  Observations  on  the  Nature  of  Demonstrative 
Evidaue,  by  Thomas  Beddoes,  8vo.  1/93.     No  man  can  look  into  the 


126  Philosophy  of  Language. 

The  Dutch  etymologists  were  followed  by  Lord 
Monboddo,  who,  in  his  Origin  and  Progress  of 
Language,  gave  some  general  views  of  the  philoso- 
phy of  grammar.  Like  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
to  whose  doctrines,  especially  those  of  the  latter, 
he  looked  with  the  profound  veneration  of  a  dis- 
ciple, he  divided  language  into  two  parts,  Noun 
and  Verb,  and  endeavoured  to  bring  all  the  other 
parts  of  speech  under  these  general  denominations. 
But  while  he  adopts  this  division  of  words,  in  one 
part  of  his  work,  he  retracts  it  in  others,  and  ad- 
mits principles  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  gene-, 
ral  doctrine.  So  that,  though  he  must  be  acknow- 
ledged to  have  given  some  learned  and  ingenious 
views  of  language,  yet  the  praise  of  having  formed 
an  original,  consistent,  and  satisfactory  system  of 
philosophical  grammar  must  be  wholly  denied 
him. 

In  1786y  this  perplexing  and  mysterious  sub- 
ject, which  had  so  long  eluded  the  researches  of 
philosophers,  was  unfolded  by  an  English  philolo- 
gist of  great  acuteness  and  erudition,  in  a  manner 
which  the  ablest  grammarians  have  generally  and 
justly  praised.  In  that  year  was  published  the  ce- 
lebrated £nEx\  riTEPOENTA,  or  Diversions  of  Parley^ 
by  Mr.  John  Horne  Tooke,  a  work  in  which,  as 
good  judges  have  asserted,  "  by  a  single  flash  of 

writings  of  Dr.  Eeddoes  without  discovering  marks  of  a  vigorous,  origi- 
nal, and  active  mind.  But  are  the  precipitancy  and  decision  with  which 
he  pronounces  on  some  of  the  most  important  and  difficult  questions  which 
occur  to  the  human  mind,  and  the  satyrical,  contemptuous  severity  which 
he  indulge;  towards  some  of  the  greatest  benefactors  to  science,  consistent 
with  the  cautious  and  candid  spirit  of  philosophy? 

j  As  early  as  1778,  Mr.  Tooke,  in  his  letter  to  Mr.  Dunning,  laid  be- 
fore the  public  the  substance  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  chapters 
•f  the  Diversions  of  Purley,  printed  eight  years  afterwards. 

k  The  Greek  scholar  will  immediately  perceive,  that  the  first  part  of 
this  whimsical  title  signifies  winged  ivords,  and  refers  to  the  author's  doc- 
trine of  derivation.  The  second  part  alludes  to  the  celebrated  seat  of  Pre- 
sident Buadshaw,  at  which  he  amused  himself  with  the  composition  of 
the  work. 


Philosophy  of  Language.  1 27 

light/'  he  has  done  more  to  explain  the  whole 
theory  of  language  than  any,  or  than  all  his  prede- 
cessors. He  seems  at  length,  indeed,  to  have  ter- 
minated the  dispute,  and  to  have  dispelled  the 
darkness  which,  for  so  many  ages,  had  rested  on 
the  subject. 

The  leading  doctrine  of  Mr.  Tooke  is,  that  there 
are  only  two  necessary  parts  of  speech,  viz.  the 
Noun  and  the  Verb,  and  that  all  other  words,  whe- 
ther adverbs,  conjunctions,  prepositions,  &:c.  are  to 
be  considered  as  corruptions  or  abbreviations  of 
these  two;  and,  of  course,  that  the  latter  classes  of 
words,  instead  of  being  in  themselves,  as  both 
Mr.  Harris  and  Lord  Monboddo  had  taught, 
mere  unmeaning  sounds,  might  be  traced  to  a  dis- 
tinct and  sensible  signification.^  In  dividing  all 
words  into  two  grand  classes,  Mr.  Tooke  agrees 
with  the  plan  which  Lord  Monboddo  adopted 
from  Plato  and  Aristotle;  but  with  respect  to 
the  remaining  details  of  his  system  he  is  original, 
and  presents  a  much  more  consistent  and  philoso- 
phical view  of  the  subject  than  any  preceding 
writer.  In  a  few  small  particulars  also,  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Diversions  of  Purley  had  been  antici- 
pated by  the  learned  Dutch  etymologists  before 
mentioned ;  but  the  points  of  coincidence  between 
them  are  so  few  and  unimportant  as  to  take  away 
nothing  material  from  Mr.  Tooke  of  the  honour 
of  oriffinalitv.' 

O  J 

I  The  author  of  Ersa  Ur^Ocvloc  lately  published  the  first  volume,  of 
a  new  ami  enlarged  edition  of  his  work,  intended  to  consist  of  three  vols. 
4to.  It  is  to  be  regretted,  however,  that  instead  of  bringing  new  sup- 
port to  his  theory,  or  pursuing  the  investigation  further  than  he  had  be- 
fore carried  it,  he  has  filled  up  the  additional  space  which  the  enlargement 
of  his  plan  afforded  him,  with  nothing  more  than  caustic  strictures  an  the 
writings  of  his  opponents,  and  unseasonable  exhibitions  of  his  political 
opinions.  Mr.  Tooke  and  Dr.  Beddoes,  in  their  respective  styles  of 
writing,  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  each  other.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  latter  has  made  the  great  philologist  his  model.  They  have  both 
great  merit  in  their  way;  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  in  several  a -.tributes  of 
their  composition  they  will  have  few  imitators. 


128  Philosophy  of  Language , 

The  general  doctrine  of  Mr.  Tooke,  especially 
so  far  as  it  applies  to  the  English  language,  has 
been  pronounced,  by  the  best  judges,  to  be  fully- 
established;  and  the  probability  is  strong  that  it 
applies  with  equal  exactness  and  felicity  to  all 
other  languages.  So  far  as  they  have  been  inves- 
tigated the  result  is  decidedly  in  favour  of  such  an 
opinion.  The  inquiries  of  the  great  etymologists 
of  Leyden,  before  mentioned,  though  they  differ 
from  Mr.  Tooke  in  many  respects,  furnish,  at  the 
same  time,  strong  confirmation  of  his  doctrine. 
But  it  is  plain  that  the  absolute  proof  of  the  univer- 
sal truth  of  this  doctrine  would  require  an  extent 
of  acquaintance  with  languages,  which  can  never 
be  acquired  by  any  individual,  and  which,  to  be 
collected  by  numbers,  will  require  a  long  course  of 
patient  labour.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  so  few 
philologists  have  pursued  the  path  marked  out  by- 
Mr.  Tooke,  and  that  none  have  been  found  to  ex- 
tend the  inquiries  which  he  commenced,  into  re- 
gions which  he  was  unable  to  explore.  Even 
some  of  the  latest  writers  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, who  have  undertaken  to  philosophize  on 
the  subject  of  language,  proceed  chiefly  upon  old 
and  exploded  principles;  and  appear  either  not  to 
be  acquainted  with,  or  not  to  embrace  the  disco- 
veries of  the  sagacious  Briton,  whose  work  forms 
so  important  an  era  in  the  history  of  philosophical 
grammar. 

Besides  the  great  theorists  above  mentioned,  the 
philosophy  of  language  has  been  treated,  with 
great  learning  and  ingenuity,  during  the  period 
under  consideration,  by  Drs.  Campbell'*  and 
Beat-tie,"  before  mentioned;  and  by  President 
De  Brosses,0  M.  Beauzee/  the  Abbe  Girard, 

m   Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,   1.  vols.  8vo. 

n    Theory  of  Language,  published  in  his  Dissertations,   %  vols.  8vo.  1 78 J. 

o   Formation  Mechanique  des  Langues. 

p   Grammaire  Qentrale%  %  torn.  8vo.  1 767. 


History.  129 

the  Abbe  Condillac,9  and  M.  Court  De  Gebe- 
lin/  of  France.  The  opinions  taught  by  the  ce- 
lebrated Scottish  professors  are  too  generally  known 
to  render  a  detailed  view  of  them  here  either  re- 
quisite or  proper;  while,  with  respect  to  the  doc- 
trines of  the  learned  French  philologists,  the  au- 
thor has  too  little  information  to  attempt  even  a 
general  sketch. 

These  inquiries  into  the  philosophy  of  grammar 
have  had,  it  is  believed,  an  useful  effect  on  many 
modern  writings,  and,  with  respect  to  their  proba- 
ble influence  hereafter,  may  be  regarded  as  of 
great  value.  Every  investigation  which  has  for  its 
objects  the  structure,  the  analysis,  and  the  real 
improvement  of  language,  doubtless  tends,  in 
proportion  to  its  success,  to  advance  the  interests 
of  education,  to  promote  every  department  of 
science,  especially  the  science  of  the  human  mind, 
and,  in  general,  to  increase  the  happiness  of  man. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 


HISTORY, 


THE  historic  Muse,  during  the  eighteenth  cen* 
tury,  had  many  votaries,  From  the  time  of  Ta- 
citus to  the  commencement  of  this  period,  she 
had  been  supplicated  by  multitudes,  but  with  little 
success.  After  the  revival  of  letters,  the  first  his- 
torical productions  of  respectable  character  were 
composed  in  Italy;  but  with  these  the  author  is 

q  See  the  first  vol.  of  his  Cours  (T Etude,  in  l6vols.    Parit^j. 
r  Hist,  de  la  Parole,  and  Grammaire  Univertalt, 

VOL,   II.  S 


ISO  History. 

too  little  acquainted  to  compare  them  with  subse- 
quent works  of  the  same  class.  It  may  be  asserted, 
however,  that  previous  to  the  age  under  review,, 
no  historians  had  arisen,  for  many  centuries,  wha 
might  be  compared  with  the  illustrious  models  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  without  incurring  a  sort  of  lite- 
rary profanity.  But  early  in  the  century  which  is 
the  period  of  this  work,  the  prospect  brightened. 
Specimens  of  history  began  to  appear  so  much  supe- 
rior to  the  uncouth  and  meagre  compilations  of 
preceding  ages,  as  to  inspire  a  just  hope  that  a 
more,  auspicious  era  was  at  hand. 

There  are  several  circumstances  belonging  to 
the  historical  productions  of  the  eighteenth  century 
which  are  peculiar  to  this  period,  and  which  dis- 
tinguish it  from  all  preceding  times.  An  attempt 
will  be  made  to  take  notice  of  some  of  the  more 
obvious  and  important  of  these  circumstances  in 
the  following  pages. 

The  number  of  historical  works  produced  in  the 
course  of  the  age,  is  the  first  circumstance  of  a  pe- 
culiar kind  which  attracts  our  notice.  No  former 
period,  certainly,  can  be  compared  to  this  with 
respect  to  the  multiplication  of  historical  records. 
Scarcely  any  portion  of  time,  or  the  affairs  of  any 
nation,  or  the  lives  of  any  conspicuous  monarchs, 
have  escaped  the  notice  of  some  writer  who  aspired 
to  the  rank  of  an  historian.  Indeed,  this,  like  every 
other  department  of  modern  composition,  has  be- 
come, within  a  few  years  past,  so  crowded  with 
adventurers,  as  to  render  the  enumeration  of  them 
next  to  an  impossible  task. 

The  historians  of  the  first  class  in  the  eighteenth 
century  presented  their  readers  with  a  greater  por- 
tion of  truth,  and  instructive  matter,  than  any  pre- 
ceding writers  of  the  same  class.  The  works  of 
the  best  Greek  historians  are  notoriously  corrupted 
by  a  large  mixture  of  fable.     The  same  remark 


History.  131 

mav  be  applied,  though  not  to  an  equal  extent,  to 
the  finest  Roman  models.  The  best  historical  works 
of  modern  Europe  are  certainly  entitled  to  more 
credit,  with  respect  to  authencity.  It  is  not  meant 
to  be  asserted  that  they  are  free  from  misrepresen- 
tation and  fable,  with  which  they  all,  in  different 
degrees,-- abound;  but  merely  that  they  contain 
much  less  of  these  than  their  predecessors.  The 
reasons  of  this  superiority  are  obvious.  The  an- 
cient historians  could  only  consult  manuscripts  and 
traditional  records.  The  former  were  compara- 
tively rare,  difficult  of  access,  liable  to  mutilation, 
and  other  injuries,  and  not  easily  corrected,  when 
erroneous,  by  collations  with  many  others  which 
detailed  the  same  facts.  The  latter  is  a  source  of 
information  so  obviously  imperfect  and  fabulous, 
that  no  prudent  writer,  in  ordinary  cases,  would 
receive  materials  from  it  with  confidence.  The 
stores  of  information  open  to  modern  historians, 
are  more  numerous,  rich,  and  authentic.  The 
art  of  printing  has  multiplied  records  beyond  all 
former  example.  The  increased  intercourse  be- 
tween distant  countries,  and  the  facility  with 
which  documents  may  be  collected  from  every  ci- 
vilized quarter  of  the  globe,  also  present  a  new 
and  most  important  advantage  to  the  modern  com- 
piler of  history.  Accordingly,  this  class  of  writers] 
in  the  course  of  the  century  under  review,  admitted 
less  fiction  into  their  narratives;  stated  truths  in  a 
more  luminous,  connected  and  satisfactory  manner; 
and  went,  in  general,  more  deeply,  and  success^ 
fully  into  the  relations  of  political  causes  and  effects, 
than  any  of  their  predecessors/ 


-c  This  remark  is  meant  to  be  a  general  one  ;  but  it  admits  of  some  ex- 
ceptions. The  histories  of  Clarendon  and  Burnet,  in  the  preceding 
century,  may  be  considered  as  vying,  in  point  of  authenticity,  with  the  best 
subsequent  works  of  the  same  kind.  They  are  both  said  to  be  partial ;  but 
fi'hat  book,  or  what  mind  was  ever  completely  free  from  partiality  * 


132  History. 

We  have  at  least  one  instance  on  record,  of  an 
eloquent  Greek  historian  attending  the  Olympic 
Games,  for  the  express  purpose  of  publicly  re- 
citing his  history  to  the  assembled  multitude.  It 
is  natural  to  conclude  that  a  work  formed  with  a 
view  to  such  an  exhibition  would  be  rather  an 
agreeable  poem,  accommodated  to  popular  preju- 
dices, and  addressed  to  popular  feelings,  than  a 
faithful  record  of  facts,  for  the  instruction  of  pos- 
terity. The  historians  of  the  present  day  lay  their 
authorities  before  the  reader,  and  their  caution  is 
excited,  and  their  fidelity  rendered  more  vigilant 
by  the  recollection  that  the  same  sources  of  infor- 
mation are  open  to  others,  and  that  contemporary 
rivals,  and  many  classes  of  readers,  will  sit  in  judg- 
ment on  the  truth  of  their  narratives. 

Another  great  improvement,  which  began  in 
the  eighteenth  century  to  characterize  the  more 
formal  and  dignified  works  on  civil  history,  is 
connecting  the  progress  of  literature,  science,  arts, 
and  manners,  with  the  chain  of  civil  and  mili- 
tary transactions.  Very  imperfect  views  of  these 
collateral,  but  important  and  interesting  objects  of 
inquiry,  are  to  be  found  in  any  histories  of  an 
earlier  date.  But  of  late  years,  and  particularly 
within  the  last  half  century,  the  best  historians 
have  interwoven  with  their  narratives  of  political 
and  military  events,  much  amusing  and  valuable 
information,  concerning  the  religion,  learning, 
laws,  customs,  trade,  and  every  other  object  tend- 
ing to  throw  light  on  the  progress,  genius,  and 
condition  of  different  communities.  The  import- 
ance of  this  improvement  will  be  readily  appreci- 
ated by  those  who  love  to  study  the  course  of  im- 
provement which  the  human  mind  has  exhibited; 
or  who  reflect  how  intimately  revolutions, and  other 
national  events  are  often  connected  with  the  current 
of  literary,  moral,  and  religious  opinions;  and  how 


History.  133 

much  a  knowledge  of  one  is  frequently  fitted  to 
elucidate  the  other. 

The  author  to  whom  we  are  probably  more  in- 
debted than  to  any  other  individual,  for  introducing 
and  recommending  this  improvement  in  civil  his- 
tory, is  M.  Voltaire.  His  Age  of  Louis  XIV. 
was  one  of  the  first  specimens  or  a  work  upon  this 
plan.  The  attention  and  admiration  which  it  ex- 
cited, and  the  degree  in  which  it  has  been  imitated 
and  surpassed,  by  many  succeeding  historians,  are 
generally  known. 

The  best  historians  of  the  eighteenth  century 
differ  from  those  of  the  same  class  in  ancient  times, 
in  excluding  speeches  and  other  extraneous  matter 
from  the  body  of  their  works.  This  practice  it  is 
well  known  was  much  in  vogue  among  the  ancients, 
and  was  an  important  part  of  the  poetical  and  even 
dramatic  structure  at  which  they  appear  to  have 
aimed  in  their  historical  compositions/  The  ex- 
clusion of  every  thing  of  this  kind  from  the  best 
models  of  history  which  the  last  age  produced,  de- 
serves to  be  mentioned  as  a  modern  improvement. 
Connected  with  this  circumstance  is  the  practice, 
also  recently  introduced,  of  subjoining  to  historical 
works,  in  the  form  of  appendices,  those  speeches, 
state-papers,  and  other  documents,  for  the  support 
or  illustration  of  their  narratives,  which  would  have 
encumbered  or  disfigured  the  text $  but  which,  at 
the  same  time,  lay  open  to  the  reader  the  sources 
of  information,  and  augment  the  sum  of  instruc- 
tion and  amusement. 

Another  point  of  difference  between  the  most 
respectable  historians  of  the  eighteenth  century 
and  their  predecessors,  consists  in  the  superior  ex- 


t  Lord  Mo  n  bod  do  pronounces  that  no  man  can  write  history  as  it 
ought  to  be  written  without  the  introduction  of  speeches ;  and  that  ex- 
cluding them  is  one  of  the  numerous  symptoms  of  literary  degeneracy  which 
characterize  modern  times. 


134  History. 

cellence  of  the  style  employed  by  the  former.  It 
is  not  intended  to  institute  a  comparison  with  re- 
spect to  this  particular,  between  the  best  ancient 
models  of  history  and  those  of  modern  times. 
But  it  can  be  doubted  by  none  that  the  first  class  of 
historical  works  produced  in  the  last  age  far  trans- 
cend in  excellenceof  manner, every  specimen  in  this 
department  of  composition,  which,  for  fifteen  cen- 
turies before,  had  been  given  to  the  world. 

The  first  English  historian  who  seems  to  have 
paid  any  attention  to  style,  and  who  rises  to  any 
thing  like  the  dignity  of  this  species  of  composition, 
is  Lord  Clarendon.  The  histories  which  pre- 
ceded his,  though  many  of  them  invaluable  as 
repositories  of  facts,  were  dull  and  uninteresting 
compilations,  thrown  together  without  taste  or 
skill,  and  apparently  without  even  an  attempt  to 
excel  with  respect  to  style.  He  had  the  honour 
of  introducing  an  higher  kind  of  historical  writing 
among  his  countrymen;  and  his  work  may  doubt- 
less be  pronounced  to  have  formed  a  remarkable 
era  in  this  branch  of  English  literature.  Though 
his  sentences  are  tediously  long  and  involved,  and 
his  narratives  equally  prolix  and  perplexed;  yet 
he  wrote  remarkably  well  for  his  time,  and  de- 
serves an  honourable  place  among  the  improvers 
of  historical  style.  After  Clarendon,  towards 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  came  Bishop 
Burnet,  wTho,  though  inferior  to  his  predecessor 
in  dignity,  went  beyond  him  in  sprightliness  and 
perspicuity.  He  was  accused  of  being  partial  to 
the  houses  of  Orange  and  Hanover;  but  with  re- 
spect to  manner,  and  general  authenticity,  he  is 
entitled  to  much  praise,  and  certainly  contributed 
something  to  the  improvement  of  English  histori- 
cal style. 

On  entering  the  eighteenth  century,  Rapin  ap- 
pears as  the  firs!:  respectable  historian.     His  His-> 


His  tort).  135 

lory  of  England,  written  in  the  French  language, 
was  first  published  at  the  Hague,  in  1727,  and 
soon  afterwards  translated  into  English  by  Tin- 
dal.  Though  Rapin  was  by  no  means  master 
of  an  agreeable  style 5  and  though  his  zeal  to  be  as 
full  and  accurate  as  possible,  led  him  to  protract 
his  work  to  a  tedious  length;  yet  he  is  entitled  to 
the  honour  of  having  compiled  one  of  the  most  com- 
plete, impartial,  and  satisfactory  histories  extant. 
He  was  one  of  the  last  historians  of  any  conspicuity 
who  loaded  the  text  of  his  work  with  speeches  and 
state-papers. 

In  1758  another  History  of  England  was  pub- 
lished by  Dr.  Smollet.    This  production  is  scarcely 
equal  to  the  talents  of  the  writer,  being  compiled 
in  great  haste,  and  rather  with  a  view  to  profit 
than  fame,  and  with  scarcely  any  attention  to  ori- 
ginal sources  of  information.     Still  with  regard  to 
style,  it  was  a  considerable  step  in  the   course  of 
improvement,    and  exhibited  excellences  in  this 
respect  superior  to  any  preceding  English  historian. 
Dr.  Smollet  was  followed  by  his  countryman  Mr. 
Hume,  who  made  trial  of  his  distinguished  powers 
in  the  same  field,  and*  with  splendid  success.     He 
far  excelled  all  his  predecessors  in  beauty  and  ex- 
cellence of  historical  style,  and  at  once  raised  the 
character  of  his  country,  in  this  branch  of  literature, 
to  a  very  high  rank.     His  work,  indeed,  is  charged 
with  glaring  partiality;  and  that  spirit  of  hostility 
to  religion  which  he  was  known   to  possess  too 
frequently  appears,  whenever,  in  the  course  of  his 
narrative,  a  pretext  for  this  purpose  was  presented. 
It  must  even,  further  be   allowed,  that,  with  re- 
spect to  style,  in  which  his  great  excellence  lies, 
he  5s  not  without  considerable  faults.     But  in  the 
choice  and  arrangement  of  his  materials,  and  es- 
pecially in  native  ease,  spirit,  and  force  of  lan- 
guage, he  has  no  equal  among  modern  historians, 


136  History. 

and  has  certainly  furnished  a  specimen  of  history 
which  will  bear  a  very  honourable  comparison 
with  the  illustrious  models  of  Greece  and  Rome. 

Soon  after  Mr.  Hume's  publication,  his  coun- 
tryman and  contemporary,  Dr.  Robertson,  gave 
to  the  public  his  History  of  Scotland,  which  was 
followed  by  the  History  of  Charles  V.  and  the 
History  of  America.  This  gentleman  unquestion- 
ably deserves  a  place  among  the  greatest  historians 
of  the  age,  if  he  do  not  occupy  the  very  first  station. 
Though  his  narrative  is  not  equal  to  Mr.  Hume's 
in  ease  and  spirit,  yet  he  exceeds  him  in  uniform 
purity,  dignity,  and  elegance  of  diction.  In  these 
respects  Dr.  Robertson  may  be  pronounced  to 
srand  at  the  head  of  all  modern  historians,  and 
perhaps  to  have  no  superior  of  any  age. 

In  enumerating  the  first  class  of  English  histori- 
cal writers,  Mr.  Gibbon  comes  next  in  order. 
The  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire  forms  an  interesting  article  in  the  catalogue 
of  modern  historical  works.  The  insidious  and  ma- 
lignant zeal  to  discredit  religion  so  often  manifested 
in  this  work,  is  well  known.  And  the  artificial  struc- 
ture, the  circuitous  obscurity,  and  the  meretricious 
ornaments  of  the  style  are  no  less  generally  acknow- 
ledged. Notwithstanding,  therefore,  all  the  learn- 
ing, and  other  splendid  accomplishments  of  this 
celebrated  historian,  he  is  far  from  having  furnished 
a  model  that  can  be  safely  imitated,  or  conferred 
any  real  improvement  on  this  department  of  Eng- 
lish literature.  Nor  is  his  work  less  hostile  to  all 
the  interests  of  decorum  and  virtue,  than  to  the 
best  rules  of  taste  and  criticism.*' 

i)  Those  who  would  see  a  faithful  exhibition  of  the  partiality,  the  want 
of  regard  to  truth,  and  the  shameful  obscenity  which  abound  in  Mr.  Gib- 
bon's celebrated  work,  especially  in  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  volumes  of 
the  quarto  edition,  will  do  well  to  consult  the  very  able  review  of  this  part 
of  the  work,  by  Mr.  Wh  it  a  ker,  first  published  in  a  British  literary  journal, 
and  since  reprinted  in  a  separate  volume.     8vo.  1791. 


History.  137 

Though  the  three  last  mentioned  writers  are  ge- 
nerally represented  as  holding  the  first  rank  amongst 
English  historians,  there  are  some  other  names, 
worthy  of  honourable  distinction,  belonging  to  the 
period  of  this  retrospect.  Lord  Lyttleton's  His- 
tory of  Henry  II.  has  long  and  deservedly  sus- 
tained a  very  high  character.  Dr.  Goldsmith's 
Histories  of  Rome  and  England  are  written  in  the 
agreeable  style  of  that  popular  author.  The  His- 
tory of  England,  by  Mrs.  Mac  aula  y,  is  a  very 
respectable  specimen  of  female  talents,  and  holds 
a  conspicuous  place  in  the  list  of  English  histori- 
cal compositions.  Besides  these  the  histories  of 
Dr.  Henry,  Professor  Stuart,  Dr.  Watson, 
Mr.  Mitford,  Dr.  Gilltes,  Dr.  Coote,  Mr. 
Ferguson,  Dr.  Russell,  Mr.  Andrews,  Mr. 
Belsham,  and  several  others,  have  received  much 
praise.  To  designate  the  comparative  and  pecu- 
liar merits  of  each  of  these  would  lead  to  a  discus- 
sion altogether  beyond  the  limits  of  this  chapter. 
It  is  sufficient  to  say  that,  with  different  views, 
and  various  grades  and  kinds  of  talents,  they  have 
all  presented  the  public  with  works  which  do 
them  honour,  and  which  occupy  an  important 
space  in  the  annals  of  English  literature. 

But  it  was  not  only  in  Great-Britain  that  histo- 
rians of  an  highly  respectable  character  arose  in 
the  course  of  the  last  age.  Most  of  the  countries 
of  Europe,  and  especially  those  distinguished  by 
the  cultivation  of  letters,  may  boast  of  a  number 
who  hold  an  elevated  rank  in  the  same  department 
of  literature. 

The  historians  of  France,  during  this  period, 
were  numerous  and  distinguished.  Early  in  the  cen- 
tury M.  Rollin,  by  his  Ancient  History™  estab- 

iv  The  respect  every  where  paid  by  M.  Rollin,  in  the  course  of  his 
history,  to  the  government  and  providence  of    God,   and  to  Revelation, 
deserves  particular  notice,  and  is  one  of  the  numerous  cjtaracterutics  •£ 
VOL.   II.  T 


138  History. 

lished  his  character  as  an  interesting  and  instruc- 
tive writer,  and  has  been  more  generally  perused' 
and  praised  than  most  other  historians  of  the  age. 
He  was  followed  by  M.  Vertot,  who,  in  several 
historical  works,  displayed  considerable  talents, 
especially  in  gracefulness  of  manner,  and  in  the 
happy  art  of  rendering  his  narrative  entertaining. 
Next  in  order  occur  the  numerous  and  extensive 
historical  works  of  M.  Voltaire.  There  can  be  no 
question  that  this  writer,  in  style,  in  comprehension 
of  mind,  in  the  philosophical  cast  of  his  inquiries, 
and  especially  in  his  reflections,  exceeded  all  the 
former  historians  which  his  country  had  produced. 
But  it  requires  only  a  slight  acquaintance  with  his 
works  to  perceive  that  he  is  partial,  uncandid, 
grossly  defective  in  authenticity,  and  disposed, 
upon  every  pretext,  to  depart  from  probability, 
truth,  and  decorum,  for  the  purpose  of  reviling  the 
religion  of  Christ/  The  Abbe  Millot  succeeded 
Voltaire,  and  in  his  Elements  of  General  Hist o?y, 
an  elegant  and  popular  work,  raised  a  monument 
to  the  honour  of  himself  and  his  country.  The 
Abbe  Raynal,  in  the  History  of  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  presented  the  public  with  a  produc- 
tion, which,  though  not  generally  respected  as 
authentic,  drew  much  of  the  attention  of  the  lite- 
rary world/     To  these  it  would  be  unpardonable 

this  great  work,  which  recommend  it  to  the  general  perusal  and  regard  o£ 
those  who  love  truth,  virtue  and  piety. 

k  The  degree  of  credit  due  to  M.  Voltaire,  as  a  recorder  of  facts, 
will  appear  in  the  perusal  of  a  work  entitled  the  Letters  of  certain  Jeivst 
&.c.  written  by  the  Abbe  Goenne,  Professor  of  Rhetoric  in  the  University 
of  Paris,  and  published  about  the  year  1 7  70.  In  this  work  the  author  is 
enabled,  by  his  profound  erudition,  his  vigorous  and  penetrating  mind,  and 
his  talents  for  mild,  but  most  efficient  satire,  to  place  the  historian  of  Ferney 
in  a  point  of  light  by  no  means  honourable  either-  to  the  accuracy  of  h*s 
learning,  or  to  his  love  of  truth. 

v  The  Abbe  Raynal's  work  is  said,  by  Mr.  Bryan  Edwards,  to 
have  no  more  title  to  the  character  of  authentic  history  than  Robinson 
Crusoe.  This  is,  probably,  an  extravagant  mode  of  expressing  what  is 
no  doubt  true,  that  the  Abbe  is  often  chargeable  with  taking  his  state- 
ments from  imagination  rather  than  from  authentic  records. 


History.  1 39 

not  to  add  the  justly  celebrated  History  of  the  Reign 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  by  Mademoiselle  Keralio/ 
which  has  been  pronounced  by  good  judges  to  be 
an  impartial  and  elegant  production.  Several  other 
respectable  historians  appeared  in  France,  towards 
the  close  of  the  century,  who  would  deserve  to  be 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  foregoing  names, 
did  our  plan  admit  of  entering  into  further  par- 
ticulars. 

In  Germany  no  historical  work  deserving  of 
high  praise,  with  respect  to  arrangement,  struc- 
ture and  style,  had  appeared  prior  to  the  middle 
of  the  century  under  consideration.  Since  that 
time  the  successive  works  of  Schmidt,  Muller, 
Haberlin,  Heinrich,  Schiller,  Wagner,  Gal- 
letti,  Bcchholz,  Beck,  Meiners,  Backzo,  and 
several  others,  have  raised  the  character  of  their 
country  with  respect  to  this  species  of  compo- 
sition. Of  these  it  is  believed  that  Schiller, 
in  ease,  spirit  and  interest  of  narrative,  and  in  cor- 
rectness and  elegance  of  style,  stands  at  the  head 
of  the  list  of  German  historians. 

In  Sweden,  Benzelius  and  Wilde,  soon  after 
the  commencement  of  the  century,  first  undertook 
to  present  the  history  of  their  country  in  a  con- 
nected and  agreeable  form.  They  were  succeeded 
by  Dahlin,  who  pursued  the  same  course  with 
more  taste  and  success.  About  the  same  time  ap- 
peared the  work  of  Botin,  which  is  much  distin- 
guished for  the  excellence  both  of  its  matter  and 
style.  Besides  these,  a  still  larger  performance  of 
Lagerbring  deserves  a  respectful  notice  among 
the  improved  specimens  of  history  which  that 
country  produced  during  the  period  of  this  retro- 
spect. To  the  above  names  may  be  added  those 
of  Celsius  and  Hallenberg,  who  have  also  been 

=   History  of  the  Reign  of  Elizabeth  Queen  of  England,  4  vols.  3vo.  I'/Sj, 


140  History. 

considerably  praised,  in  their  own  country,  for  se- 
veral historical  compositions.* 

The  historians  of  the  rest  of  Europe,  during  this 
period,  though  numerous,  were  few  of  them  ex- 
tensively known,  or  higly  esteemed.  The  History 
of  Denmark,  by  M.  P.  F.  Scjhm,  is  said  to  be  a 
work  indicating  considerable  erudition  and  talents 
The  History  of  Mexico,  by  Glavigero,  and  the 
History  of  the  New  World,  by  Munoz,  as  they 
supplied,  in  some  degree,  important  desiderata  in 
the  republic  of  letters,  may  be  regarded  as  among 
the  most  interesting  of  the  numerous  volumes  which 
might  be  recounted,  did  our  limits  admit  of  such 
details.  v 

On  the  whole,  it  is  believed  that  Great-Britain 
produced  the  best  models  of  historical  composition 
of  which  the  eighteenth  century  can  boast.  Though 
some  of  the  French  historians,  and  particularly  M. 
Voltaire,  seem  to  have  led  the  way  in  forming 
the  present  improved  taste  in  this  species  of  writing; 
yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  their  British  suc- 
cessors went  far  beyond  them,  and  produced  his- 
tories which,  in  the  choice  and  arrangement  of 
facts,  in  dignity,  purity,  and  elegance  of  style,  and 
in  general  authenticity,  display  an  assemblage  of 
excellences  which  were  never  before  equalled  in 
any  age  or  country.  Next  to  these  the  historians 
of  France  and  Germany  justly  claim  superior  rank. 
The  other  countries  of  Europe  stand  in  an  order, 
with  respect  to  degrees  of  excellence,  which  it  is 
neither  easy  nor  necessary  to  adjust. 

Though  America  has  not  yet  produced  histo- 
rians who  can  vie  with  the  first  class  of  British 
models,  yet  she  has  given  birth  to  a  number  quite 
proportioned  to  her  literary  age  and  standing,  and 
some  which  will  do  her  lasting  honour.     These  all 

«  Catteau's  View  of  Sweden,  chap,  xxiii.  8vo;  Lond.  1790. 


History.  141 

belong  to  the  eighteenth  century.  The  first  his- 
torical work  published  by  a  native  American,  was 
the  History  of  Virginia,  by  the  Reverend  Wil- 
liam Stith,  President  of  William  and  Mary  Col- 
lege. This  gentleman  was  learned,  collected  his 
materials  with  a  singularly  minute  care,  and,  it  is 
said,  may  be  relied  on,  as  exceedingly  faithful  and 
accurate;  but  his  manner  is  inelegant,  and  unin- 
teresting. Stith  was  followed  by  Mr.  Beverly, 
who  wrote  the  history  of  the  same  Province,  up  to 
the  year  1700.  If  his  predecessor  were  too  mi- 
nute and  tedious,  Beverly  ran  into  the  opposite 
extreme,  and  failed  of  being  so  instructive  or 
pleasing  as  he  might  otherwise  have  been,  from 
his  excessive  brevity. 

The  next  American  who  displayed  his  talents  in 
this  department  of  literary  labour  was  Cadwal- 
lader  Golden,  Esquire,  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  the  Province  of  New- York,  who  was  before 
mentioned  as  a  respectable  physician,  botanist, 
and  astronomer.  His  History  of  the  Five  Nations 
of  Indians  is  another  monument  of  his  talents  and 
diligence.  In  1756  William  Smith,  Esquire^ 
published  his  History  of  the  Province  of  New-York, 
a  work  which,  though  executed  at  an  early  period 
of  the  life  of  the  author,  and  in  great  haste,  yet 
affords  a  large  and  very  valuable  amount  of  in- 
struction to  the  student  of  American  history.  In 
1765  Mr.  Samuel  Smith  published  a  History  of 
New-Jersey,  which  appears  to  be  a  judicious  and 
faithful  compilation.  A  few  years  afterwards  Go- 
vernor Hutchinson  presented  to  the  public  his 
History  of  Massachusetts,  which  holds  a  respecta- 
ble rank  among  the  historical  productions  of  this 
country.  He  was  followed  by  Dr.  David  Ram- 
say, of  South-Carolina,  who,  in  his  History  of 
the  American  Revolution,  and  his  History  of  the 
Revolution  in  South-Carolina,  has  done  honour  to 


142  History. 

his  fidelity,  diligence,  and  literary  taste.  In  1792 
the  Reverend  Dr.  Jeremy  Belknap  completed  his 
History  of  New-Hampshire,  a.  work  which  will  long 
be  considered  as  an  honourable  testimonial  of  the 
industry  and  judgment  of  the  author.6  Two  years 
afterwards  Dr.  Samuel  Williams  gave  to  the 
public  his  History  of  Vermont,  which  indicates  an 
ingenious  and  philosophical  mind,  and  contains 
much  useful  information. .  The  next  American 
history  is  that  of  the  District  of  Maine,  by  James 
Sullivan,  Esquire,  which  affords  a  considerable 
portion  of  interesting  instruction  to  the  student  of 
American  history.  In  1797  appeared  the  Civil 
and  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Connecticut,  by  the 
Reverend  Dr.  Benjamin  Trumbull,  a  perform- 
ance which,  for  the  fulness  of  the  information 
which  it  exhibits,  and  the  minute  accuracy  and  fi- 
delity manifested  in  every  part  of  the  narrative, 
deserves  high  praise/  In  the  same  year  was 
published  a  History  of  Pennsylvania,  by  Mr. 
Robert  Proud,  which,  though  not  distinguished 
by  much  taste  in  the  selection  and  arrangement  of 
its  materials,  nor  by  the  correctness  or  elegance 
of  its  style,  is  yet  entitled  to  credit  as  a  faithful 
compilation  of  facts,  especially  as  it  presents  a 
concise  view  of  the  society  of  Friends,  and  a  very 
satisfactory  account  of  the  settlement  and  progress 
of  that  denomination  of  Christians  in  Pennsylvania. 
The  last  important  work  of  this  kind  given  to  the 

b  Dr.  Belknap  will  long  be  respectfully  remembered  by  the  friends  of 
literature  in  Massachusetts,  and  in  the  United  States.  Besides  presenting 
the  public  with  works  which  must  be  considered  among  the  best  specimens 
of  history  and  biography  which  our  country  has  produced,  there  were  few 
men  in  America  more  learned,  of  more  solid  and  useful  talents,  or  more 
devoted  to  the  establishment  and  support  of  literary  and  scientific  institu- 
tions. He  who  shall  attempt  hereafter  to  give  a  view  of  the  progress  of 
literature  in  New-England,  and  especially  in  Massachusetts,  must  assign 
a  conspicuous  place  to  the  character  and  labours  of  Dr.  Belknap. 

c  This  gentleman  is  now  engaged  in  compiling  a  History  of  the  United 
States,  on  which  he  has  bestowed  much  time  and  labour,  and  of  which  those 
who  know  his  fidelity  and  accuracy,  entertain  high  expectations. 


History.  143 

American  public  is  a  Continuation  of  the  History 
of  Massachusetts,  by  George  R.  Minot,  Esquire, 
of  that  State,  a  work  of  considerable  merit,  and 
which  it  is  hoped  the  ingenious  author  will  be  in- 
duced soon  to  complete/ 

A  new  plan  of  history  was  introduced,  a  few 
years  ago,  by  the  Reverend  Dr.  Henry,  of  Edin- 
burgh, in  his  History  of  Great-Britain,"  in  which 
the  civil,  military,  naval,  commercial,  constitu- 
tional, and  scientific  departments  of  his  work  are 
severally  placed  in  distinct  chapters,  and  while 
their  mutual  influence  is  stated,  may  each  be  read 
separate  from  the  rest,  through  the  whole  period 
embraced  by  the  historian.  In  this  plan  he  was 
followed,  with  some  improvements,  by  Mr.  James 
P.  Andrews,  whose  premature  death  the  lite- 
rary world  has  much  reason  to  regret;  and  to 
whom  it  is  hoped  some  successor  wTill  appear  as 
competent  to  tread  in  his  steps  as  he  was  in  those 
of  Dr.  Henry. 

The  mode  of  writing  history  in  the  form  of 
Letters  is,  in  a  great  measure,  if  not  entirely,  pe- 
culiar to  the  century  under  consideration.  This 
form  of  historical  composition,  it  is  believed,  was 
first  introduced  into  the  English  language  by  Lord 
Lyttleton,  and  was  afterwards  adopted  by  Dr. 
Goldsmith,  Dr.  Russell,  and  others.  That  it 
presents  some  advantages,  chiefly  on  the  score  of 
that  ease  and  familiarity  admissible  in  the  epis- 

d  Since  the  above  was  written,  this  gentleman,  to  the  regret  of  all  who 
knew  him,  has  been  removed  by  death.  His  learning  and  talents,  com- 
bined with  a  degree  of  modesty,  urbanity,  and  dignity  of  character  truly- 
rare,  endeared  him  to  a  large  and  respectable  circle  of  friends,  and  rendered 
him  one  of  the  ornaments  of  his  native  State.  Seldom  has  the  memory  of 
any  man  been  more  highly  respected,  or  more  fondly  cherished  by  his  ac- 
quaintance, than  that  of  George  Richards  Minot. 

e  Some  years  before  the  appearance  of  Dr.  Henry's  work,  Dr.  Mo- 
SHEIM  had  adopted  a  plan  somewhat  similar  in  his  Ecclesiastical  History. 
Dr.  Henry  is  entitled  to  the  honour  of  having  introduced  this  plan  into 
civil  history,  and  of  having  conferred  upon  it  several  important  improve- 
ments. 


144  History. 

tolary  style,  is  obvious;  but  whether  it  be  consist- 
ent with  the  proper  structure,  continued  narrative, 
and  true  dignity  of  history,  may  certainly  be  ques- 
tioned.    ' 

A  new  species  of  historical  composition  to  which 
the  age  under  review  has  given  rise,  is  that  which 
is  commonly  called  Statistical  History.  The  word 
Statistics,  as  the  name  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  inquiry, 
was  first  introduced  into  the  English  language  by 
Sir  John  Sincl  air  .  He  derived  it  from  the  German 
writers,  who  have  long  employed  the  term  to  sig- 
nify those  topics  of  inquiry  which  interest  the 
statist,  ox  statesman.  That  is  a  proper  Statistical 
history  of  any  country  which  exhibits  every  thing 
relating  thereto,  which  the  riders  of  the  State  are 
concerned  to  examine  and  know.  Those  who 
have  given  histories  of  this  kind  in  Germany  are 
numerous.  The  first  and  most  conspicuous  Sta- 
tistical historian  in  the  annals  of  English  litera- 
ture is  Sir  John  Sinclair,  who  has  collected,  in 
this  form,  an  amount  of  information  concerning 
North-Britain,  which  does  much  honour  not  only  to 
the  individuals  who  furnished  the  information,  but 
also  to  the  industry  and  public  spirit  of  the  editor/ 

The  execution  of  a  plan  of  Universal  History, 
to  any  considerable  and  useful  extent,  was  first  ac- 
complished in  the  eighteenth  century.  It  is  certain 
that  English  literature  can  boast  of  no  respectable 
production  of  this  kind  before  the  commencement 
of  the  period  in  question.  Since  that  time  works 
of  this  nature  have  been  compiled  in  various  parts 
of  Europe,  and  some  of  them  are  entitled  to  high 
praise,  with  respect  both  to  their  fulness  and  their 
judicious  structure. 

f  Proposals  have  been  published  for  the  compilation  of  statistical  histories 
of  several  of  the  American  States,  and  smaller  districts  of  our  country. 
Among  the  most  important  and  promising  of  these  are  the  proposals  made 
by  the  Connecticut  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  to  publish  a  statistical 
history  of  that  State.  From  the  talents  and  learning  included  in  that  body 
high  expectations  are  formed  concerning  their  projected  work. 


History.  145 

The  last  age  was  also  very  productive  of  another 
class  of  historians,  in  a  great  measure  peculiar  to 
it.  These  are  the  persons  who  have  undertaken 
to  deduce  the  progress,  and  exhibit  the  condition  of 
Counties,  Cities,  and  other  particular  Districts. 
Among  those  who  have  distinguished  themselves, 
by  works  of  this  kind,  in  the  Englfsh  language,  are 
Mr.  Grose,  Mr.  PoLWHELE,,Dr.  Aiken,  Mr.  Pen- 
nant, and  many  others,  whose  industry  and  judg- 
ment, in  bringing  together  so  large  a  mass  of  do- 
cuments relating  to  the  several  objects  which  they 
undertook  to  describe,  deserve  the  highest  praise. 

There  is  another  species  of  historical  composi- 
tion, in  some  measure  peculiar  to  the  age  under 
review,  of  which  several  meritorious  specimens 
have  been  given.  It  consists  in  an  exhibition  of 
ancient  events,  literature,  and  manners,  under  the 
denomination  "of  Travels,  and  in  the  fictitious  style 
of  Romance.  In  this  class  of  writings  the  Athenian 
Letters,  printed  in  Great-Britain,  in  1740,  are 
entitled  to  the  first  place.  This  work  consists  of 
the  imaginary  correspondence  of  a  set  of  Greek 
gentlemen,  the  cotemporaries  of  Socrates,  'Peri- 
cles, and  Plato;  but  was  in  reality  the  actual  cor- 
respondence of  a  society  of  ingenious  and  learned 
gentlemen  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  who, 
under  fictitious  characters,  communicated  to  each 
other  the  result  of  their  researches  into  ancient  his- 
tory, and,  through  this  medium,  laid  before  the 
public    an    entertaining    and    instructive    work/ 

g  When  this  correspondence  had  continued  for  a  considerable  time,  and 
the  number  of  letters  had  become  so  large  as  to  render  the  transcribing-  of 
them  for  the  use  of  the  association  too  troublesome,  it  was  agreed  to  print 
twelve  copies,  which  was  accordingly  done,  in  the  year  1740;  but  the 
work  was  not  then  published.  In  1 78 1,  another  small  edition  of  one  hun- 
dred copies  was  printed  ;  but  the  work  could  not  yet  be  said  to  be  pub- 
lished, as  the  circulation  of  it  was  confined  to  a  few  individuals.  It  was 
not  until  1798  that  it  was,  strictly  speaking,  laid  before  the  public,  in  two 
vols.  410.  This  work  is  said  to  be  the  best  commentary  on  Thucydides 
that  ever  wa6  written.  It  was  at  fint  supposed  that  Bab.tuel.bmi  had 
VOL.   II.  U 


1 46  History. 

The  next  remarkable  production  of  this  kind, 
which  has  been  still  more  celebrated  than  the 
Athenian  Letters 9  is  the  Travels  of  Anach  arsis,  by 
M.  Barthelemi.  The  models  of  this  learned 
composition  are  said  to  have  been  the  Cyrop&dia, 
and  the  Travels  of  Cyrns  ;  and  the  author,  we  are 
told,  devoted  to  it  the  labour  of  thirty  years.  Its 
great  merit  and  singular  popularity  are  well 
known.  The  Travels  of  Antenor,  by  M.  Lantier, 
in  imitation  of  Barthelemi's  work,  is,  in  every 
respect,  inferior  to  that  curious  production. 

Besides  the  various  kinds  of  history  which  have 
been  mentioned,  the  eighteenth  century  produced 
histories  of  several  Arts,  Sciences,  and  departments 
of  Literature.  These,  if  not  peculiar  to  this  pe- 
riod, have  greatly  increased,  in  the  course  of  it* 
in  number,  accuracy  and  value.  Of  the  large  list 
which  might  be  recited,  it  is  proper  to  notice, 
with  particular  respect,  the  learned  and  judicious 
History  of  Philosophy,  by  Brucker,  abridged  and 
presented  in  an  English  dress,  by  Dr.  Enfield; 
the  History  of  Astronomy,  by  M.  Bailly;  the 
History  of  Optics  and  of  Electricity,  by  Dr.  Priest- 
ley; the  History  of  Chemistry,  by  Boerhaave, 
Wei  glib,  and  others;  the  History  of  Medicine,  by 
Le  Clerc  and  Strengel;  the  History  of  English 
Poetry,  by  Dr.  War  ton;  the  History  of  Music, 
by  Dr.  Burney  ;  the  History  of  the  Law  of  Nations, 
by  Ward  5  the  History  of  Jacobinism,  by  the  Abbe 
Bar  ruel  ;  and  the  history  of  the  Fine  Arts,  by  the 
Abbe  Winckleman,  and  others. 

The  plan  of  publishing  large  Collections  of  State 
Papers,  for  historical  purposes,  though  conceived, 
and  in  some  degree  executed,  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  eighteenth  century,  yet  pre-emi- 

talcen  the  plan  of  his  work  from  this  publication  ;  but  it  has  since  ap- 
peared that  he  had  never  seen  the  Athenian  Letters  previous  to  the  com- 
pletion of  his  celebrated  Travels  of  Anacbartu. 


History.  1  17 

nently  belongs  to  this  period.  Never,  certainly, 
were  collections  of  this  kind  so  numerous,  exten- 
sive, and  rich,  or  so  useful  to  the  historian,  as 
during  the  last  age.  They  were  so  numerous,  in- 
deed, that  no  attempt  can  be  made  here  to  recount 
even  the  most  voluminous  and  remarkable  which 
were  compiled  in  various  parts  of  Europe.  The 
most  curious  and  valuable  Collection  of  this  kind 
that  has  been  made  in  America,  is  that  by  Mr. 
Ehenezer  Hazard,  of  Philadelphia,  who,  for 
his  useful  labours,  is  entitled  to  the  thanks  of  every 
one  who  wishes  to  become  acquainted  with  Ame- 
rican history/ 

Among  the  various  contrivances  to  facilitate  the 
acquisition  of  historical  knowledge,  to  which  the 
age  in  question  gave  birth,  may  be  mentioned  the 
Charts  of  History,  in  different  forms,  which  mo- 
dern ingenuity  has  framed.  These,  it  is  believed, 
were  first  brought  into  Great-Britain  from  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.  Among  the  first  presented  to 
the  British  public  were  those  invented  and  deline- 
ated by  Dr.  Priestley,  with  whose  indefatigable 
labours  we  meet  in  almost  every  department  of  li- 
terature and  science.  The  Lectures  on  History,  by 
the  same  gentleman,  may  be  considered,  on  the 
whole,  as  one  of  the  most  able  and  useful  works 
produced  by  its  author;  and  indeed  as  among  the 
best  and  most  satisfactory  views  of  that  subject 
which  the  age  furnished. 

The  eighteenth  century  not  only  gave  birth  to 
many  original  productions  of  the  historical  kind, 
but  also  to  many  very  valuable  translations  of 
the  works  of  ancient  historians.  This  exhibi- 
tion of  the  well-constructed  and  elegant  produc- 
tions of  antiquity   in  modern  dress,  while  it  de- 


h   See  Historical  Collections ,   5cc.  by  Ebenizzcr  HAZARD,  A.  M.    2  vols. 
4to.    179a  and  1794. 


148  History. 

serves  to  be  mentioned  among  the  literary  en- 
terprises which  distinguish  the  age  under  consider- 
ation, may  also,  at  the  same  time,  be  pronounced 
to  have  exerted  a  favourable  influence  on  the  cha- 
racter of  modern  historical  composition. 

It  is  impossible  to  dismiss  this  subject  without 
recollecting  how  much  the  researches  of  historians, 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  have  contributed  to  fur- 
nish evidence  in  favour  of  Revelation.  There 
never  was  a  period  in  which  Antiquities  were  so  ex- 
tensively and  successfully  investigated;  and  every 
step  of  this  investigation  has  served  to  illustrate 
and  support  the  sacred  volume.  A  few  superficial 
inquirers,  in  the  course  of  the  century,  supposed 
and  hoped  that  they  had  made  discoveries  from  the 
stores  of  antiquity  which  would  be  found  destruc- 
tive of  the  inspired  history.  But  these  fond  hopes 
were  soon  disappointed.  When  the  path  of  inquiry 
opened  by  these  sanguine  discoverers  was  pursued 
further,  and  the  facts  on  which  they  rested  their  op- 
position to  Scripture  were  more  closely  examined, 
they  were  found  to  terminate  in  evidence  of  a  di- 
rectly contrary  kind  from  that  which  was  at  first 
expected.  In  this  view  it  may  be  asserted,  that 
some  portions  of  the  evidence  in  favour  of  Christie 
anity,  instead  of  growing  weaker  by  time,  are 
more  convincing  and  satisfactory  to  the  candid 
mind,  at  the  present  hour,  than  they  were,  or, 
could  have  been,  fifteen  centuries  ago. 


(      149      ) 


CHAPTER  XVIII, 


BIOGRAPHY. 


BIOGRAPHY  is  one  of  the  oldest  species  of 
writing.  After  the  restoration  of  learning  this 
branch  of  historical  composition  became  particu- 
larly popular  in  Italy  and  France.  From  the  latter 
country  the  same  taste  passed  into  Great-Britain, 
where  it  has  been  ever  since  growing.  Since  the 
commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  every 
literary  country  of  Europe  has  produced  a  greater 
number  of  biographical  works  than  at  any  former 
period.  There  certainly  never  was  an  age  in  which 
Memoirs,  Lives,  collections  of  Anecdotes,  &c.  re- 
specting the  dead,  were  so  numerous,  and  had 
such  a  general  circulation,  as  that  which  is  the  sub- 
ject of  this  retrospect. 

Perhaps  few  works  have  contributed  more  to 
form  a  taste  for  biography,  in  modern  Europe, 
than  the  Dictionary  of  M.  Bayle,  one  of  the  most 
curious  and  learned  publications  of  any  age.  Early 
in  the  century  under  review  this  work  was  trans- 
lated into  English,  and  circulated  in  Great-Britain. 
Not  long  afterwards  it  was  republished,  with  very 
large  additions,  which  nearly  doubled  its  original 
extent.  The  Biographical  History  of  England,  by 
Grainger,  is  entitled  to  the  next  place  in  recount- 
ing the  British  productions  of  this  nature.  This 
was  followed  by  the  Biographia  Britannica,  by  Dr. 
Kippis,  after  the  manner  of  Bayle.  Since  the 
appearance  of  this  large  collection  of  biography, 
several  works,  of  a  similar  kind,  have  been  laid 


1 50  Biography, 

before  the  British  public  by  Adams  and  others. 
The  last  publication  of  this  class,  and  in  some  re- 
spects the  best,  is  that  by  Drs.  Enfield  and  Aiken, 
undertaken  a  short  time  before  the  close  of  the 
century,  and  yet  unfinished. 

Besides  these  general  biographical  works,  there 
were  others,  intended  to  exhibit  the  lives  of  parti- 
cular classes  of  eminent  persons,  of  which  a  num- 
ber of  high  character  were  compiled  and  circulated 
during  the  last  age.  The  Lives  of  the  British 
Admirals  form  an  important  and  interesting  collec- 
tion of  this  kind.  The  Biography  of  illustrious 
British  Naval  Characters,  by  Charnock  ;  the  lives 
of  Eminently  Pious  Women,  by  Dr.  Gibbons;  the 
Biographia  Medica,  by  Hutchinson ;  the  Biogra- 
phia  Literaria,  by  Dr.  Berkenhout;  and  several 
other  similar  works,  are  also  entitled  to  respectful 
notice  in  enumerating  this  class  of  modern  writings. 

The  biographical  collections  made  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe,  during  the  last  age,  were  nume- 
rous and  extensive,  especially  in  the  French  and 
German  languages.  Among  these  the  Histoire 
LJterairc,  of  M.  Sennebier,  has  attracted  much 
attention,  and  received  much  praise.  Besides  this, 
the  Biographical  Dictionary  of  learned  Swedes,  by 
Gezelius;  the  Lives  of  the  Great  Men  of  Ger- 
many, by  Klein;  and  the  large  biographical  works, 
byScHRANCK,  Schiller  and  Meiners,  of  Germany; 
byD'ALiiMBERT,of  France;  and  byTENEVELLi  and 
Fabronius,  of  Italy,  deserve  honourable  distinc- 
tion. Of  many  others,  perhaps  equally  worthy  of 
commendation,  the  author  has  too  little  knowledge 
to  enable  him  to  speak,  and  especially  to  delineate 
their  character. 

But  amongst  all  the  Collections  of  Lives  which 
the  eighteenth  century  produced,  the  greatest,  if 
not  in  bulk,  yet  in  sterling  merit,  is  the  Lives  of 
the  English  Poets,  by  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson.     It 


Biography.  151 

\z  believed  that  this  collection  is  without  a  parallel 
in  any  language,  and  certainly  unequalled  in  the 
history  of  English  literature.  The  author  has  been 
charged,  indeed,  with  discovering  strong  and  even 
bitter  prejudices  against  some  of  the  best  charac- 
ters which  he  undertook  to  review.  But  admitting 
this  to  be  true,  and  in  some  instances  there  is 
perhaps  too  much  foundation  for  the  charge,  it 
may  still  be  asked,  where  the  student  of  polite  li- 
terature will  meGt  with  another  collection  of  bio- 
graphical sketches,  at  once  so  original,  instruc- 
tive, and  entertaining;  with  a  body  of  criticism  so 
refined  and  discriminating;  with  a  work  abound- 
ing in  so  many  beauties  of  style,  so  many  just  ob- 
servations on  human  nature,  so  many  curious  and 
striking  remarks  on  various  departments  of  know- 
ledge and  of  life,  so  many  comprehensive  views, 
and  all  so  pure  in  their  moral  character,  as  the 
Lives  of  the  Poets  display  ?  The  stores  of  literature, 
it  may  be  confidently  pronounced,  will  furnish  him 
with  no  such  work.' 

Among  the  numerous  single  biographical  works 
which  the  last  age  produced,  it  will  be  impossible 
to  recount  all,  or  even  the  greater  part  of  those 
which  are  worthy  of  notice.  A  few  of  those  which 
are  distinguished  in  the  annals  of  English  literature 
may  be  slightly  mentioned.  The  Life  of  Cicero, 
by  Dr.  Middleton;  the  Life  of  Erasmus,  by  Dr. 
Jortin;  the  Life  of  Swift,  by  Mr.  Sheridan; 
the  Life  of  Metastasio,  by  Dr.  Burney;  the  Life 
of  Doddridge,  by  Mr.  Or  ton;  the  Life  of  Pe- 
trarch, by  Mrs.  Dobson;  the  Life  of  Bacon,  by 
Mr.  Mallet;  the  Life  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  by 

i  While  this  warm  and  unreserved  praise  is  bestowed  on  Dr.  Johnson, 
and  particularly  on  the  great  biographical  work  which  is  the  subject  of  the 
above  paragraph,  it  is  perhaps  proper  to  inform  the  reader,  that  my  opi- 
nions, on  a  variety  of  subjects,  by  no  means  coincide  with  those  which  he 
frequently  avows,  and  takes  pains  to  inculcate.  What  these  opinions  are, 
it  would  be  unsuitable  in  this  place  to  detail. 


152  Biography. 

Mr.  Roscoe;  the  Life  of  Burke,  by  Dr.  Bissettj 
and  the  Life  of  Milton,  by  Mr.  Haley,  claim  a 
distinction  in  this  class  of  modern  writings,  which 
demands  particular  notice.    \ 

The  Life  of  Dr.  Johnson,  by  Mr.  Boswell,  is- 
a  curious  and  singular  specimen  of  biography. 
Perhaps  no  character  was  ever  so  fully  displayed 
in  its  alternate  exhibitions  of  greatness  and  little- 
ness as  the  illustrious  subject  of  this  work.  Mr. 
Boswell,  in  the  compilation,  had  in  view  as  a 
model,  the  Memoirs  of  Gray,  by  Mr.  Mason  } 
but  in  the  opinion  of  the  best  judges,  the  biogra- 
pher of  Johnson,  with  all  his  vanity  and  weak- 
ness, greatly  exceeds  Air.  Mason  in  the  quantity, 
the  variety,  and  the  richness  of  his  materials.  In 
favour  of  this  plan  of  biographical  composition 
much  may  be  said.  Had  we  memoirs  of  this  ample 
and  minute  kind  of  every  great  benefactor  to  the  in- 
terests of  science,  literature  and  virtue,  they  would 
form  a  most  curious,  and,  in  some  respects,  an  inva- 
luable treasure.  But  it  may  well  be  questioned 
whether  dragging  into  public  view,  and  placing  on 
permanent  record,  the  occasional  follies,  the  tem- 
porary mistakes,  and  every  unguarded  sally  of 
merriment  or  passion,  into  which  a  great  mind 
may  be  led,  ought  to  be  approved  or  encouraged. 
To  delineate  a  character  faithfully  in  its  leading 
features,  whether  great  and  honourable,  or  other- 
wise, is  the  duty  of  every  good  biographer;  but 
to  crowd  the  pages  of  an  eminently  wise  and  vir- 


j  Works  intended  to  do  honour  to  learned  and  ingenious  men,  by  collect- 
ing their  wise  and  witty  sayings,  and  giving  familiar  details  of  their  con- 
duct, were  compiled  many  centuries  anterior  to  the  eighteenth.  The 
earliest  work  of  this  kind  now  extant  is  the  Memorabilia  of  Xenophon. 
Wolfius,  in  his  Causaboniana,  tells  us  that  the  first  of  the  books  in  ana,  was 
that  compiled  in  honuur  of  the  great  Scaliger,  and  called  Scaligerana, 
drawn  from  the  papers  of  Vassant  and  Vertunian,  who  took  the 
whole  from  the  mouth  of  that  celebrated  scholar.  In  later  times  works  of 
this  nature  have  wonderfully  multiplied.     Monthly  Review. 


Biography.  1  j  3 

tuous  man's  life  with  the  recital  of  every  momen- 
tary error  and  ridiculous  foible;  to  dwell  with  as 
much  studious  care  on  the  trivial  follies  and  pre- 
judices of  such  a  character,  as  on  his  sublime 
powers  and  excellence;  and  to  record  every  vain 
or  erroneous  saying,  or  unjustifiable  action,  which 
cannot  be  considered  as  properly  belonging  to  the 
character,  may  be  safely  pronounced  to  be  a  plan 
of  biography  which,  though  highly  interesting,  is 
neither  useful  nor  wise/ 

The  manner  of  M.  Bayle  has  been  imitated  by 
many  subsequent  writers.  Of  these  the  most  re- 
markable compiler  of  individual  Lives,  in  the 
English  language,  is  Mr.  Harris,  whose  biogra- 
phical works,  on  James  I.  Charles  I.  Oliver 
Cromwell,  and  Charles  II,  are  generally  known, 
and  have  been  much  applauded. 

Many  single  Lives  of  eminent  men,  on  different 
plans,  and  of  various  degrees  of  merit,  appeared 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  in  the  course  of  the 
last  age.  Of  these  the  Life  of  Petrarch,  by  the 
Abbe  De  la  Sade;  and  the  Life  of  Erasmus,  by 
M.  Burigni,  deserve  particular  notice.  They  are 
both  biographical  works  of  great  merit,  and  pro- 
bably have  few  superiors  of  their  kind  in  any  lan- 
guage.    Perhaps  it  might  be  added,  that  the  plan 


k  There  are  two  extremes  into  which  biographers  are  apt  to  fall.  The 
one  is  adopting  a  continued  strain  of  eulogy,  and  endeavouring  either 
wholly  to  keep  out  of  view,  or  ingeniously  to  varnish  over  the  errors  and 
weaknesses  of  those  whose  lives  they  record.  To  this  fault  in  biographical 
writing  Mr.  Haley  discovers,  perhaps,  too  strong  a  tendency.  If  I  donor 
greatly  mistake,  his  Life  of  Milton  and  his  Life  of  Cowper  may  both  be 
justly  impeached  on  this  ground.  The  other,  and  a  more  mischievous  ex- 
creme  is,  recording  against  departed  worth,  with  studied  amplitude,  and 
disgusting  minuteness,  the  momentary  mistakes  of  forgetfulhess,  the  occa- 
sional vagaries  of  levity,  and  the  false  opinions,  expressed  not  as  the  re- 
sult of  sober  reflection,  but  thrown  out  either  in  a  mirthful  hour,  or  in  the 
heat  of  disputation.  Of  the  latter  fault  Mr.  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson 
furnishes  perhaps  the  most  singular  example.  The  proper  course  is  between 
these  extremes;  and  of  this  course  it  is  to  be  lamented  that  we  have  so 
few  models. 

VOL.    II.  X 


154  Biography. 

on  which  they  are  composed  is,  on  the  whole,  the 
best  plan  of  biography  now  in  use.  But  these  are 
only  two  specimens  out  of  a  very  large  list  which, 
were  the  author  sufficiently  acquainted  with  them, 
might,  with  propriety,  be  mentioned  with  nearly 
equal  honour.  The  Life  of  M.  Turgot,  by  M. 
Condorcet,  and  the  Life  of  M.  de  Voltaire, 
by  the  same  author,  have  also  been  much  cele- 
brated and  admired,  among  a  certain  class  of 
readers. 

At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  a  species 
of  biographical  writing  came  into  vogue,  of 
which,  it  is  believed,  no  example  ever  appeared  in 
any  preceding  age.  This  is  the  Accounts  of  dis- 
tinguished Living  Characters,  with  which,  for 
some  years  past,  Europe  has  abounded.  It  is  not 
easy  to  say  whether  this  species  of  writing  is  more 
useful  or  injurious  in  its  tendency.  Like  almost 
every  other  kind  of  literary  work,  however,  its 
effect  must  depend  on  the  mode  in  which  it  is 
executed.  If  this  be  impartial,  skilful,  and  just* 
it  will,  doubtless,  tend  to  satisfy  curiosity,  to  en- 
courage rising  genius,  to  correct  the  foibles  of  pub- 
lic men,  and  to  extend  general  knowledge. 

Means  were  adopted,  during  the  last  age,  for 
facilitating  the  acquisition  and  retention  of  biogra^ 
phical  knowledge,  similar  to  those  which  were  be- 
fore mentioned  as  belonging  to  the  department  of 
history.  Biographical  Charts  were  first  formed  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  where  they  have  appeared 
in  various  forms.  This  contrivance,  it  is  believed, 
was  first  introduced  into  Great-Britain  by  Dr. 
Priestley. 


(      155      ) 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

ROMANCES    AND    NOVELS. 


FICTITIOUS  narrative,  as  a  medium  of  instruc- 
tion* or  entertainment,  has  been  employed  from 
the  earliest  ages  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge. 
Of  this  kind  of  composition,  we  have  some  inter- 
esting specimens  in  the  sacred  writings.  But, 
like  every  thing  else  in  the  hands  of  depraved  man, 
it  has  been  unhappily  perverted  and  abused.  For 
many  centuries  the  only  form  of  fictitious  history 
in  vogue  was  that  of  Romance,1  or  descriptions  of 
the  characters  and  manners  of  former  times,  min- 
gled with  many  extravagant  and  improbable  cir- 
cumstances, and  calculated  to  meet  that  fondness 
for  the  marvellous,  which  so  strongly  characterizes 
the  human  mind. 

One  of  the  earliest  writers  of  this  class,  of  whom 
we  have  any  distinct  account,  but  by  no  means 
one  of  the  most  extravagant  of  them,  was  Helio- 
dorus,  Bishop  of  Tricca,  in  Thessaly,  who  lived 
in  the  fourth  century.'"     His  work  was  entitled 

/  The  word  Romance  is  of  Spanish  origin,  and  signifies  the  Spanish 
tongue ;  the  greater  part  of  which  is  derived  from  the  ancient  Latin  or 
Roman  language.  It  seems  the  first  Spanish  books  were  fabulous,  and  be- 
ing called  Romance,  on  account  of  the  tongue  in  which  they  were  written, 
the  same  name  was  afterwards  given,  by  the  other  nations  of  Europe,  not 
to  Spanish  books,  which  is  the  proper  application  of  the  term,  but  to  a 
certain  class  of  fabulous  writings.     See  Beattie    On  Fable  and  Romance. 

m  Doubts  have  been  entertained  whether  the  work  of  Heliodorus  were 
really  the  first  romance.  Some  suppose  that  instances  of  this  kind  of 
writing  maybe  traced  back  as  far  as  the  time  of  Aristotle.  Others 
have  thought  that,  from  the  Asiatic  Researches,  and  other  modern  publica- 
tions on  Oriental  literature,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  native  coun- 
try of  Romance  is  the  East,  which  seems  to  have  produced  many  extrava- 
gant specimens,  from  time  immemorial.  See  Curiosities  of  Literature,  by 
D'Israeli. 


156  Romances  and  Novels. 

Ethiopics,  from  the  scene  of  the  adventures  being 
laid  in  Ethiopia.  And  although  it  was  a  decent 
and  moral  performance,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
Antioch  attested  that  it  had  reformed  the  females 
of  their  city;  yet  the  author,  for  writing,  and  re- 
fusing to  suppress  it,  was  deprived  of  his  Bishopric, 
and  deposed  from  the  clerical  office.  M.  Bayle 
humorously  observes,  that  the  marriage  of  Thea- 
gines  and  Charidea,  the  hero  and  heroine  of  this 
romance,  was  the  most  prolific  of  any  that  he  had 
read  of;  having  produced  all  the  romances  which 
have  been  written  since  that  time. 

After  the  time  of  Heliodorus  romances  be- 
came still  more  extravagant  and  absurd  in  their 
character.  The  times  and  principles  of  Chivalry 
conferred  upon  them  new  features,  and  gave  them 
a  different  cast  from  all  the  fictitious  writings  which 
had  before  appeared.  In  these  performances  the 
reader  was  continually  presented  with  the  wild  ab- 
surdities, and  the  heroic  exploits  of  knight-errantry. 
Giants,  dragons,  enchanted  castles,  fairies,  ghosts, 
and  all  the  tribes  of  imaginary  wonders  were  con- 
stantly passing  before  him.  Probability,  and  .even 
possibility,  were  little  consulted.  To  arrest,  asto- 
nish, and  intoxicate  the  mind,  seem  to  have  been 
their  principal  objects.  But  extravagance  was  not 
the  only  fault  ofthe  old  romantic  writings.  They 
were  often  grossly  immoral  in  their  nature  and 
tendency,  abounding  in  every  species  of  impure 
and  corrupting  exhibition  of  vice.  They  were 
also,  in  general,  tediously  diffuse,  extending  to 
many  volumes,  and  fatiguing  the  reader  with  their 
unnecessary  prolixity. 

Romance  retained  its  empire  in  every  literary 
part  of  Europe,  until  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  about  which  time  Micuel  de 
Cervantes,  a  native  of  Madrid,  published  his  ce- 
lebrated satirical  romance,  entitled  The  History  of 


Romances  and  Novels.  157 

Don  Quixote.  This  performance  was  expressly 
intended  to  pour  ridicule  on  those  masses  of  ab- 
surdity and  impurity  which  had  so  long  maintained 
an  influence  over  the  wrorld.  Few  works  were 
ever  so  much  read,  or  so  effectually  answered 
their  proposed  end.  Its  effect  was  equal  to  the 
most  sanguine  expectations  of  the  author.  It 'de- 
stroyed the  reign  of  chivalry;  produced  a  new 
modification  of  public  taste;  occasioned  the  death 
of  the  old  romance;  and  gave  birth  to  another 
species  of  fictitious  writing. 

This  may  be  called  romance  divested  of  its  most 
extravagant  and  exceptionable  characters.  In  the 
works  of  this  kind  the  heroism  and  the  gallantry 
of  the  old  romance  were  in  a  degree  retained ;  but 
the  dragons,  the  necromancers,  and  the  enchanted 
castles,  were  chiefly  banished,  and  a  nearer  ap- 
proach made  to  the  descriptions  of  real  life.  The 
JstneaofM.  D'Urfe,  and  the  Grand  Cyrus,  the 
Clelia,  and  the  Cleopatra,  of  Madame  Scudery, 
are  among  the  most  memorable  specimens  of  ro- 
mance thus  pruned  and  improved.  These  works, 
however,  had  still  too  much  of  the  improbable  and 
unnatural  to  please  a  just  taste;  and  therefore  gave 
way  to  a  further  improvement,  which  was  the  in- 
troduction of  the  modern  Novel. 

The  word  Novel  is  intended  to  express  that  kind 
of  fictitious  history,  which  presents  natural  and 
probable  exhibitions  of  modern  manners  and  cha- 
racters."    In  this  species  of  writing  the  extrava- 

n  Most  writers  on  this  subject  employ  the  word  Romance  to  express  both 
those  performances  which  pourtrayed  ancient  manners,  with  all  the  ex- 
travagance and  folly  of  chivalry  ;  and  those  which  depict  modern  manners 
true  to  nature  and  life.  But  since  the  word  Romance  is  considered  as  in- 
variably expressive  of  something  wild,  unreal,  and  far  removed  from  com- 
mon practice,  ought  not  some  other  word  to  be  adopted,  to  designate  those 
fictitious  works  which  profess  to  instruct  or  entertain  by  describing  com- 
mon life  and  real  characters  ?  And  is  not  the  word  Novel  well  suited  to 
this  purpose  of  discrimination  ?  This  word  has  long  been  used ;  but,  if  I 
do  not  mistake,  in  many  instances,  without  that  accuracy  of  application 
which  is  desirable. 


158  Romances  and  Novels. 

gance,  the  heroic  exploits,  the  complicated  and 
endless  intrigues,  and  the  mock  elevation  before 
thought  necessary,  were  abandoned:  heroes,  in- 
stead of  being  taken  from  the  throne,  were  sought 
for  in  common  life:  in  place  of  the  enchanted  cas- 
tles, the  conflicts  of  giants,  and  the  absurdities  of 
chivalry,  the  incidents  which  daily  happen  in  the 
world,  the  ordinary  scenes  of  social  and  domestic 
intercourse,  were  introduced :  instead  of  the  pom- 
pous, inflated  style  formerly  admired,  and  which 
alone  was  congenial  with  the  romantic  spirit,  a 
more  simple  and  familiar  manner  was  adopted; 
and,  from  ten  or  twelve  tedious  volumes,  the  nar- 
rative was  reduced  to  two  or  three,  and  seldom 
much  exceeded  the  latter  number. 

Of  modern  Novels  a  few  appeared  in  the  seven- 
teenth century;  but  the  number  was  so  small,  and 
the  character  of  these,  for  the  most  part,  so  low, 
that  even  the  names  of  but  a  small  portion  of  them 
have  reached  the  present  time.  The  eighteenth 
century  may  be  peculiarly  and  emphatically  called 
the  Age  of  Novels.  The  first  great  work  of  this 
kind,  in  the  English  language,  was  Joseph  Andrews, 
by  Mr.  Henry  Fielding,  a  comic  performance, 
which,  though  sometimes  indelicate,  and  often  ex- 
ceptionable in  its  moral  tendency,  yet  displays 
great  wit,  humour,  learning,  taste,  and  knowledge 
of  mankind."  The  next  was  Pamela,  by  Mr. 
Samuel  Richardson.  This  work  introduced,  and 
rendered  popular,  the  mode  of  writing  novels  in 
the  form  of  Letters,  which  has  been  since  adopted 
by  many,  both  in  Great-Britain  and  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe.     Pamela  was  succeeded  by  Tom 

o  Dr.  Beattie  tells  us,  that  Lord  Lyttleton,  once  in  conversation 
with  him,  after  mentioning  several  particulars  of  Pope,  Swift,  and  other 
wits  of  that  time,  when  he  was  asked  some  question  relating  to  the  au- 
thor of  Tom  Jones,  began  his  answer  with  these  words,  "  Henry  Field- 
ing, I  assure  you,  had  more  wit,  and  more  humour,  than  all  the  persons 
we  have  been  s-peaking  of  put  together." 


Romances  and  NoveU.  159 

Jones,  which,  though  by  no  means  pure  in  its  mo- 
ral tendency,  is  esteemed  by  the  ablest  critics,  as 
the  first  performance  of  the  heroi-comic  kind  that 
was  ever  written/  The  same  author  next  pro- 
duced his  Amelia,  in  which  he  imitated  the  epic 
poets,  by  beginning  his  narrative  in  the  middle  of 
the  story.  This  plan  was  soon  followed  by  Rich- 
ardson, in  his  Clarissa  Harlowe,  and  Sir  Charles 
Grandison,  in  both  which  the  epistolary  form  of 
writing  is  retained,  to  which  he  seems  to  have  been 
particularly  attached. 

The  earliest  productions  of  Great-Britain  in  this 
department  of  writing  may  be  considered  as  her 
best.  Fielding  and  Richardson  have  never  been 
exceeded,  and  probably  not  equalled,  by  any  no- 
velists since  their  day,  either  in  their  own  or  any 
other  country.  Each  of  these  authors  may  be  said 
to  have  invented  a  new  species  of  fictitious  writing, 
and  to  have  carried  it  at  once  to  the  highest  point 
of  improvement  which  it  has  ever  reached.  Their 
talents  were  different,  and  their  works  display  this 
difference  in  a  very  strong  light;  but  each  attained 
a  degree  of  excellence  in  his  way,  altogether  un- 
rivalled. Fielding  is  humorous  and  comic;  Rich- 
ardson more  grave  and  dignified.  They  both 
paint  with  a  masterly  hand;  but  Fielding  is  per- 
haps more  true  to  nature  than  his  rival.  The 
former  succeeds  better  in  describing  manners;  the 

p  *  Since  the  days  of  Homer,  says  Dr.  JBeattIe,  the  world  has  not 
seen  a  more  artful  epic  fable  than  Tom  Jones.  The  characters  and  adven- 
tures are  wonderfully  diversified  ;  yet  the  circumstances  are  all  so  natural, 
and  rise  so  easily  from  one  another,  and  co-operate  with  so  much  regula- 
rity in  bringing  on,  even  while  they  seem  to  retard  the  catastrophe,  that 
the  curiosity  of  the  reader  is  kept  always  awake,  and  instead  of  flagging 
grows  more  and  more  impatient,  as  the  story  advances,  till  at  last  it  be- 
comes downright  anxiety.  And  when  we  get  to  the  end,  and  look  back 
on  the  whole  contrivance,  we  are  amazed  to  find,  that  of  so  many  inci- 
dents there  should  be  so  few  superfluous ;  that  in  such  variety  of  fiction 
there  should  be  so  great  probability ;  and  that  so  complex  a  tale  should  be 
30  perspicuously  conducted,  and  with  perfect  unity  of  design."  See  the 
JDissertatian  on  Fable  and  Romantt, 


1 60  Romances  and  Novels. 

latter  in  developing  and  displaying  the  lieart.  In 
plot  and  contrivance  Fielding  has  no  superior; 
while  Richardson  interests  us  less  by  his  incidents 
than  by  the  beauty  of  his  descriptions  and  the  ex- 
cellence of  his  sentiments.9  Fielding  is  most  at 
home  when  describing  low  life,  and  exhibiting  the 
humorous  effusions  of  coarseness  and  indelicacy/ 
Richardson,  on  the  other  hand,  is  rather  in  his 
element  when  displaying  the  purity  and  subli- 
mity of  virtue/  The  most  eminent  writers  of  dif- 
ferent countries  have  paid  homage  to  the  merits  of 
Richardson  as  a  novelist.  His  works  have  been 
translated  into  almost  every  language  of  Europe, 
and  notwithstanding  every  dissimilitude  of  man- 
ners, and  every  disadvantage  of  translation,  they 
have  probably  been  more  generally  admired  and 
eulogized  than  those  of  any  other  author  in  this 
species  of  composition.  Though  Fielding  has 
been  less  popular  abroad,  owing,  perhaps,  to  the 
peculiar  appropriateness  of  his  pictures  of  English 
manners;  yet,  in  several  important  attributes  of  fic- 
titious narrative,  he  certainly  transcends  every 
other  writer. 

These  distinguished  and  standard  novelists  have 
had  many  imitators,  particularly  in  their  own  coun- 
try; but  none  who  have  risen  to  the  same  degree 

q  Dr.  Johnson,  once  in  conversation  with  Mr.  Thomas  Erskine, 
said,  "  Sir,  if  you  were  to  read  Richardson  for  the  story,  your  impa- 
tience would  be  so  much  fretted  that  you  would  hang  yourself.  But  you 
must  read  him  for  the  sentiment,  and  consider  the  story  as  only  giving  oc- 
casion to  the  sentiment." 

r  Richardson  used  to  say,  that  had  he  not  known  who  Fielding 
Was,  he  should  have  believed  him  to  be  an  ostler. 

s  Richardson  was  a  man  of  great  purity  and  excellence  of  character. 
He  was  one  of  the  best  bred  gentlemen  of  his  day — habituated  to  genteel 
life  only — amiable,  benevolent,  and  unaffectedly  pious;  and  no  doubt  en- 
deavoured, though  some  have  supposed  without  complete  success,  to  con- 
struct all  his  narratives  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  them  an  unexceptiona- 
ble moral  tendency.  Fielding  was  less  pure  in  his  principles  and  cha- 
racter, and  had  been  more  conversant  at  some  periods  with  low  life.  In 
wit,  humour,  and  knowledge  of  mankind,  he  has  been  pronounced  inferior 
to  no  individual  of  modern  times  excepting  Shaksfeare. 


Romances  and  Novels.  161 

of"  excellence  which  they  attained.  Among  the 
most  successful  of  these  was  Dr.  Smollet.  His 
Roderick  Random  was  written  in  imitation  of  Tom 
Jones;  his  Humphrey  Clinker,  the  last  and  best 
of  his  works,  after  the  manner  of  Richardson; 
and  his  History  of  Sir  Launcelot  Greaves,  with  a 
view  to  the  manner  of  Cervantes/  These  imi- 
tations are  by  no  means  without  success,  and  cer- 
tainly hold,  in  some  respects,  a  very  high  place  in 
the  list  of  those  fictitious  writings  which  belong  to 
the  age  under  consideration.  In  exhibiting  the  pe- 
culiarities of  professional  character  Dr.  Smollet 
displays  great  powers.  Perhaps  no  writer  was 
ever  more  successful  in  drawing  the  character  of 
seamen.  Sometimes,  indeed,  his  pictures  border  on 
the  extravagance  of  caricatura,  to  which  his  satiri- 
cal and  cynical  disposition  strongly  inclined  him. 
His  propensity  to  burlesque  and  broad  humour 
too  frequently  recurs;  and  he  is  often  indelicate 
and  licentious  to  a  very  shameful  degree.  These 
remarks  apply,  in  some  measure,  to  most  of  his 
works;  but  to  his  Peregrine  Pickle,  and  The  Ad- 
ventures of  an  Atom,  the  charge  of  indelicate  de- 
scription, and  immoral  tendency,  is  particularly 
applicable. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century 
M.  Le  Sace,  an  ingenious  French  writer,  pub- 
lished his  Gil  Bias,  which  appears  to  have  been 
among  the  earliest  works  of  the  novel  kind,  pub- 
lished on  the  continent  of  Europe,  that  rank  with 
the  first  class,  or  that  are  now  held  in  much  esteem. 
This  performance  was  intended  to  be  a  picture  of 
Spanish  manners,  and  abounds  with  a  great  variety 
of  incident  and  vivacity  of  description.  It  differs 
from  Tom  Jones  in  that  it  partakes  less  of  the  Epic 

t  It  is  obvious,  from  the  definition  before  given  of  a  Novel,  that  Sm  ot- 
ter's Sir  Launcelot  Greaves  does  not  strictly  belong  to  this  class ;  but   ra- 
ther falls  under  the  denomination  of  Romance. 
VOL.   II.  Y 


1G2  Romances  and  Novels. 

character,  and  may,  with  more  propriety,  be  de- 
nominated a  piece  of  "  fictitious  biography;"  but 
resembles  that  celebrated  work  in  wit,  humour, 
and  knowledge  of  the  world.  Soon  after  the  pub- 
lication of  Gil  Bias,  the  Marianne  of  Marivaux, 
on  the  same  general  plan,  appeared.  This  work 
dpas  a  place  assigned  to  it  among  the  best  novels 
in  the  French  language.  It  discovers  much  ac- 
quaintance with  human  nature,  and,  under  the 
veil  of  wit  and  incident,  conveys  much  useful  moral. 
Several  other  novels  were  written  by  the  same  au- 
thor, but  none  of  them  are  equal  to  this.  They 
were  succeeded  by  the  fictitious  writings  of  Vol- 
taire snd  Diderot,  which  were  of  different  kinds, 
and  possessed  different  degrees  of  literary  merit; 
but  chiefly  designed,  like  most  of  the  other  writings 
of  those  far-famed  infidels,  to  discredit  Religion, 
both  natural  and  revealed,  and  to  destroy  the  in- 
fluence of  those  institutions  which  have  proved  so 
conducive  to  human  happiness.  The  novels  of 
Diderot,  in  particular,  abound  with  every  species 
of  licentiousness,  and  have  a  most  pernicious  ten- 
dency. 

M.  Crebillon,  the  younger,  distinguished  him- 
self by  several  works  of  fiction,  executed  in  a  new 
taste,  which,  though  rendered  highly  interesting 
to  many  readers  by  their  levity,  humour,  and 
whimsical  digressions,  are  yet  dangerous  in  their 
tendency,  from  a  continual  display  of  libertine  sen- 
timent. Madame  Riccoboni  is  another  distin- 
guished novelist  of  France,  belonging  to  the  pe- 
riod under  review.  Her  Fanny  Butler,  and  seve- 
ral other  works,  have  been  much  read  and  admired; 
but  have  been  also  severely  criticized,  as  containing 
much  indelicacy,  and  even  obscenity,  in  their  nar- 
ratives. M.  Marmontel,  of  the  same  country, 
also  presented  the  public,  during  the  period  under 
consideration,  with  a  new  species  of  fiction,  in 


Romances  and  Novels.  165 

bis  Moral  Tales,  which,  being  less  prolix  than  the 
common  novel,  combine  instruction  and  amuse- 
ment in  a  very  pleasing  degree.  Many  of  them, 
however,  it  must  be  owned,  are  indelicate,  and 
corrupting  in  their  tendency,  and  ought  to  be  con- 
sidered as  especiallv  unfit  to  be  put,  as  they  fre- 
quently are,  into  the  hands  of  children  and  young 
persons. 

But,  among  all  the  French  novelists,  J.  J. 
Rousseau  unquestionably  holds  the  first  place  as 
a  man  of  genius.  His  Nouvelle  Heloise  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  productions  of  the  age.  Elo- 
quent, tender,  and  interesting  in  the  highest  de- 
gree; yet  full  of  inconsistency,  of  extravagance, 
of  licentious  principle,  and  of  voluptuous,  seduc- 
ing description.  Poison  lurks  in  every  page;  but 
concealed  from  the  view  of  many  readers  by  the 
wonderful  fascination  which  is  thrown  around 
every  object.  Of  the  dangerous  tendency  of  his 
wrork,  indeed,  the  author  was  himself  fully  sen- 
sible, and  speaks  freely.  A  circumstance  which 
forms  one  among  the  many  grounds  of  imputation 
against  the  morality  of  that  singular  man.'" 

The  writings  of  the  distinguished  novelists  above 
mentioned  produced,  in  every  part  of  Europe,  an 
host  of  imitators  and  adventurers  in  the  regions  of 
fiction.  To  give  even  a  general  sketch  of  the  nu- 
merous classes  of  those  who  have  written  under  the 


•y  The  character  of  Rousseau  perhaps  exhibits  the  most  singular  and 
humiliating  contrasts  that  were  ever  displayed  in  a  human  being.  Exalted 
genius  and  grovelling  folly  alternately  characterized  his  mind.  At  some 
periods  he  appeared  to  be  under  the  influence  of  the  most  pure  and  sublime 
moral  feelings;  while,  at  others/the  lowest  propensities,  and  most  detesta- 
ble passions,  possessed  and  governed  him.  Oftentimes,  when  speaking  of 
morality  and  religion,  one  would  imagine  that  sentiments  of  the  most  ele- 
vated benevolence  and  piety  were  habitual  to  him ;  but  the  tenor  of  his  life, 
and,  indeed,  his  own  Confessions  demonstrate,  that  an  unnatural  compound 
of  vanity,  meanness,  and  contemptible  self-love,  a  suspicious,  restless  tem- 
per, bordering  on  insanity,  and  a  prostration  of  every  principle  and  duty, 
to  his  own  aggrandisement  and  gratification,  were  the  real  predominant 
characteristics  of  this  strange  phenomenon  in  human  nature. 


164  Romances  and  Novels. 

titles  of  Memoirs,  Lives,  Histories,  Adventures, 
&c.  would  fill  a  volume.  Since  the  time  of  Field- 
ing the  Epic  form  of  novels  has  been  more  in 
vogue  than  before.  Plot  has  become  more  fashion- 
able, and  is  considered  more  essential  to  the  ex- 
cellence of  their  structure.  During  the  last  thirty 
years  of  the  century  under  consideration,  the  coun- 
tries most  productive  of  respectable  works  in  this 
species  of  composition  were  Great-Britain,  France, 
and  Germany. 

Among  the  later  British  novelists,  Dr.  Gold- 
smith, Miss  Burney  (now  Madame  D'Arblay), 
Mrs.  Radcliffe,  Mr.  Mackenzie,  Miss  C, 
Smith,  and  Dr.  Moore,  undoubtedly  rank  highest. 
The  Vicar  of  Wakefield  will  ever  be  read  with  new 
pleasure,  as  one  of  the  finest,  most  natural,  and 
most  happily  imagined  moral  pictures  that  was  ever 
drawn.  The  author  of  Evelina,  Cecilia,  and  Ca- 
milla, has  marked  out  for  herself  a  manner  of  writing 
in  some  respects  new.  If  the  reader  do  not  find 
in  her  pages  those  bold  and  daring  strokes  which 
indicate  the  hand  of  a  great  and  original  genius; 
yet,  in  giving  pictures  of  characters  and  manners^ 
simple,  natural,  just,  lively,  and  perfectly  moral 
in  their  tendency,  she  has  no  equal  among  her  co- 
temporaries.  The  performances  of  Mrs.  Rad- 
cliffe will  be  presently  mentioned  as  belonging 
to  a  new  and  singular  class  of  fictitious  writings. 
The  publications  of  Mr.  Mackenzie,  which  be- 
long to  this  department  of  literature,  have  been 
jnuch  read,  and  have  received  high  praise.  Miss 
Charlotte  Smith  holds  an  honourable  place 
among  the  ingenious  and  moral  novelists  of  the 
a^e.  Dr.  Moore,  in  describing  English  manners, 
has  acquitted  himself  with  high  credit.  But  the 
works  of  the  three  last  will  probably  never  be 
mentioned  as  forming  an  era  in  the  history  of  Bri- 


'Romances  and  Novels.  165 

tish  novels,  like  those  of  Fielding,  Richardson, 

SMOLLET,    BURNEY,    andRADCLIFFE. 

To  the  class  of  novels,  rather  than  to  any  other, 
belongs  that  remarkable  production*,  the  Life  and 
Opinions  of  Tristram  Shandy,  by  the  Reverend 
Laurence  Sterne.  Notwithstanding  the  often 
repeated,  and  well  supported  charges,  brought 
against  this  writer,  of  borrowing  without  acknow- 
ledgment, many  of  his  best  thoughts  from  pre- 
ceding British  and  French  authors,"  yet  his  work 
is  an  unique  in  the  history  of  literature.  When  it 
first  appeared  his  readers  w7ere  astonished  at  the 
singular  farrago  of  obscurity,  whim,  indecency, 
and  extravagance  which  it  exhibited.  The  majo- 
rity appeared  to  be  at  a  loss,  for  a  time,  what 
judgment  to  form  of  its  merits.  But  some  of  the 
friends  of  the  writer,  professing  to  comprehend  his 
meaning,  and  disposed  to  place  him  high  in  the 
ranks  of  wit  and  humour,  gave  the  signal  to  ad- 
mire. The  signal  was  obeyed;  and  multitudes, 
to  the  present  day,  have  continued  to  mistake  his 
capricious  and  exceptionable  singularities  for  ef- 
forts of  a  great  and  original  genius.  But  his  ge- 
nius and  writings  have  certainly  been  overrated. 
That  he  possessed  considerable  powers,  of  a  cer- 
tain description,  is  readily  admitted;  that  the  Epi- 
sodes of  Le  Fevre  and  Maria  are  almost  unrivalled, 
as  specimens  of  the  tender  and  pathetic,  must  also 
be  granted;  but  those  parts  of  his  works  which 
deserve  this  character  bear  so  small  a  proportion 
to  the  rest,  and  the  great  mass  of  what  he  has 
written  is  either  so  shamefully  obscene,  so  quaintly 
obscure,  or  so  foolishly  unmeaning,  that  there  are 


u  It  seems  to  be  now  well  ascertained  that  Sterne  carried  to  a  very 
great  length,  the  practice  of  filling  his  pages  with  plunder  from  other  writers. 
His  freedoms  of  this  kind  with  the  works  of  Rabelais,  Burton  (author 
of  the  Anatomy  of  Melancholy)  and  Crebillon,  junior,  have  been  par- 
ticularly detected. 


166  Romances  and  Novels. 

very  few  works  more  calculated  to  corrupt  both 
the  taste  and  the  morals.  That  a  man  who  bore 
the  sacred  office  should  employ  his  talents  in  re- 
commending a*  system  of  libertinism;  that  he  who 
could  so  well  delineate  the  pleasures  of  benevo- 
lence and  purity,  should  so  grossly  offend  against 
both;  and  that  volumes  which  abound  with  such 
professions  of  exalted  philanthropy,  should  con- 
tain so  many  pages  on  which  a  virtuous  mind  can- 
not look  but  with  disgust  and  indignation,  are 
facts  more  atrociously  and  disgracefully  criminal 
than  the  ordinary  language  of  reprobation  is  able 
to  reach™ 

The  last  age  is  also  distinguished  by  some  pro- 
ductions of  a  singular  kind,  partaking  of  the  ex- 
travagance of  the  ancient  Romance,  with  some  of 
the  attributes  of  the  modern  Novel.  The  Castle  of 
Otranto,  by  Lord  Orford,  better  known  by  the 
name  of  Horace  Walpole,  was  one  of  the  earliest 
and  most  remarkable  productions  of  this  kind. 
To  the  same  class,  though  in  many  respects  differ- 
ent, belong  the  works  of  Mrs.  Radcliffe.  This 
lady  has  formed  for  herself  a  department  of  fiction 
which  may  be  called  new.  She  has  been  justly 
styled  "  the  Shakspeare  of  romance  writers," 
and  displays  a  skill  altogether  unrivalled  "  in  com- 
municating terrific  impressions  from  imaginary 
causes."  But  it  is  a  remarkable  peculiarity  of  her 
narratives,  and  greatly  augments  her  title  to  praise, 
that,  while  the  scenes  which  she  exhibits  abound 
with  wildness  and  terror,  yet  they  are  so  softened 

iv  "  What  is  called  sentimental  writing,"  says  Horace  Walpoie, 
"  though  it  be  understood  to  appeal  solely  to  the  heart,  may  be  the  pro- 
duct of  a  very  bad  one.  One  would  imagine  that  Sterne  had  been  a 
man  of  a  very  tender  heart;  yet  T  know,  from  indubitable  authority,  that 
his  mother,  who  kept  a  school,  having  run  in  debt,  on  account  of  an  extra- 
vagant daughter,  would  have  rotted  in  jail  if  the  parents  of  her  scholars 
had  not  raised  a  subscription  for  her.  Her  son  had  too  much  sentiment 
to  have  any  feeling.  A  dead  ass  was  more  important  to  him  than  a  living 
mother."     Wal^oliar.a^  vol.  i. 


Romances  and  Novels.  16? 

down,  and  the  mind  so  much  relieved  by  beauti- 
ful description,  and  pathetic  incident,  that  the 
impression  of  the  whole  seldom  becomes  too  strong, 
and  never  degenerates  into  horror;  bnt  pleasurable 
emotion  is  the  predominating  result.  It  ought, 
likewise,  to  be  mentioned  to  her  honour,  that  the 
general  tendency  of  her  writings  is  favourable  to 
virtue/ 

To  this  mixed  class  also  belongs  the  Monk  of 
Mr.  Lewis.  While  this  production  evinces  talents^ 
it  must  be  considered  as  highly  mischievous  in  its 
tendency,  and  as  disgraceful  to  the  character  of 
the  writer.  In  this  department  of  fiction  several 
German  writers  have  made  a  conspicuous  figure, 
especially  the  authors  of  the  Ghost  Seer,  The 
Victim  of  Magical  Delusion,  and  many  others  of 
a  similar  cast.  The  herd  of  low  and  impotent 
imitators  of  these  works,  with  which  Great-Britain, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  have  abounded  for  several 
years  past,  while  they  dishonour  literature,  and 
corrupt  good  morals,  present  a  very  curious  pic- 
ture of  the  taste  and  character  of  the  age  which 
gave  them  birth. 

Among  the  peculiarities  of  the  century  under 
consideration  may  be  mentioned  the  practice  of 
conveying  certain  principles  on  the  subjects  of  mo- 
rals, religion,  and  politics,  through  the  medium 
of  fictitious  narrative.  Though  many  works  of 
fiction  had  been  formed,  prior  to  this  age,  with 
the  view  to  convey,  to  a  certain  extent,  moral 
principles  and  impressions;  yet  the  plan  of  attack- 
ing particular  classes  of  men,  or  of  doctrines  through 
this  medium,  and  of  interweaving  systems  of  mo- 
rality, theology,  or  philosophy,  through  the  pages 
of  romances  or  novels,  was  seldom,  if  ever  at- 
tempted before  the  eighteenth  century. 

x    The  Mysteries  of  Udolpho,  the  Romance  of  the  Forest^  and    The  Italia-, 
are  considered  as  the  best  performances  of  this  lady. 


168  Romances  and  Novels. 

One  of  the  earliest  productions  of  this  kind  was 
the  Adventures  of  Telemachus,  by  Archbishop  Fe- 
nelon,  which  appeared  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century.  This  work  was  intended  to  assert  and 
exemplify  those  moral  and  political  maxims  which 
the  pious  and  benevolent  author  had  before  taught 
to  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Anjou,  when 
committed  to  his  tuition.  The  style  of  this  cele- 
brated poem3'  is  generally  admired,  the  fiction  is 
ably  conducted,  and  the  moral  is  pure  and  sublime. 
Its  extensive  circulation  and  great  popularity  are 
well  known.  About  the  same  time  appeared  the 
Tale  of  a  Tub,  one  of  the  first  publications  of  Dean 
Swift.  The  design  of  this  allegorical  fable  was 
to  expose  certain  abuses  and  corruptions  in  learn- 
ing and  religion,  especially  the  latter;  and  it  has 
been  pronounced  in  felicity  of  wit,  in  force  of  sa- 
tire, in  copiousness  of  imagery,  and  in  vivacity  of 
diction,  to  exceed  all  the  subsequent  productions 
of  the  author.2  About  twenty  years  afterwards 
the  same  celebrated  writer  published  his  Gidliver's 
Travels,  a  performance  which  wras,  perhaps,  more 
read  than  any  other  of  the  age.  This  satirical 
work  is  levelled  at  human  pride  and  folly,  at  the 
abuses  of  learning,  at  the  absurdity  of  theorists 
and  projectors,  and,  especially,  at  the  expedients 
and  blunders  of  politicians.  In  this,  as  in  the 
former,  the  fable  is,  in  general,  well  conducted, 
the  satire  is  keen,  the  description  admirable,  and 
the  style  at  once  easy,  graceful,  and  vigorous. 
But  the  work  is  by  no  means  free  from  gross  faults. 
It  discovers  a  prevailing  fondness  in  the  author  for 
filthy  allusions,  and  indecent  nauseating  descrip- 

y  TekaacBus,  though  not  written  in  verse,  is  so  poetical  in  its  character, 
that  it  may  With  propriety  be  denominated  a  poem. 

ss  This  praise  must  be  received  with  qualification.  The  Tale  of  a  Tub 
contains  some  images  and  allusions  highly  indelicate,  and  even  grossly  of- 
fensive. The  author  is  also  chargeable  with  treating  serious  things,  in  this 
performance,  with  too  much  levitv. 


Romances  and  Novels.  169 

tions.  The  Voyage  to  the  Houyhnhnms,  in  particu- 
lar, is  very  objectionable.  Its  satire  is  that  of  a 
misanthrope;  its  imagery  and  allusions  those  of  a 
mind  which  delighted  in  filth;  and  its  fiction  alto- 
gether inconsistent  and  irrational. 

In  1759  was  published  the  Rasselas  of  Dr. 
Johnson,  a  philosophical  tale,  the  design  of  which 
was  to  convey,  in  the  oriental  manner,  useful  les- 
sons respecting  the  vanity  of  the  world,  the  insuf- 
ficiency of  temporal  things  to  secure  human  happi- 
ness, and  the  consequent  importance  of  having  a 
due  regard  to  things  eternal.  This  work  has  been 
translated  into  almost  all  the  modern  languages  of 
Europe,  and  was  one  of  the  first  moral  effusions  of 
that  mind  which  afterwards  laboured  so  much, 
and  so  well,  to  "  give  ardour  to  virtue,  and  con- 
fidence to  truth. "  About  the  same  time  appeared 
the  Candide  of  M.  Voltaire,  written  to  refute 
the  system  of  optimism,  and  probably  with  a  wish, 
also,  to  discredit  the  belief  of  a  superintending 
Providence.  There  is  a  considerable  similarity  in 
the  plan  and  conduct  of  Rasselas  and  Candide. 
Bat  the  circumstances  under  which  they  were  pub- 
lished precluded  the  suspicion  of  either  having 
been  indebted  to  the  other." 

After  the  publication  of  the  foregoing  works, 
Mr.  Ridley,  in  his  Tales  of  the  Genii,  endeavoured 
to  defend  some  of  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity; while,  on  the  other  hand,  these  doctrines 
have  been  covertly  attacked,  in  the  Life  and  Opi- 
nions of  John  Bunckle,  jun.  in  the  Memoirs  of  se- 
veral Ladies,  in  The  Spiritual  Quixote,  in  Dia- 
logues of  the  Philosophers  of  Ulubne,  and  in  several 


*  "  I  have  heard  Johnson,"  says  Mr.  Boswell,  "  say  of  these  two 
works,  that  if  they  had  not  been  published  so  closely  one  after  the  other, 
it  would  have  been  in  vain  to  deny  that  the  scheme  of  that  which  came 
latest  was  taken  from  the  other."  BoswEtt's  Life  of  Jobns9nt  vol.  i.  p. 
z8a. 

VOL.   II.  Z 


170  Romances  and  Novels. 

other  works  of  fiction.  That  system  of  opinions 
usually  styled  the  New  Philosophy?  has  been  ex- 
hibited with  great  zeal,  with  a  view  to  its  defence, 
in  the  fictitious  writings  of  Diderot,  and  many 
other  French  novelists;  and  in  those  of  Holcroft, 
Godwin,  Mary  Wollstonecraft,  and  Mary 
Hays,  of  Great-Britain.  The  same  delusive  and 
mischievous  system  has  been  successfully  attacked 
and  exposed  in  The  Highlander,  by  Dr.  Bissett  ; 
in  the  Modem  Philosophers,  by  Miss  Hamilton; 
in  the  Memoirs  of  St.  Godwin,  in  The  Vagabond, 
in  Plain  Sense,  and  in  various  anonymous  publica- 
tions of  the  novel  kind. 

A  number  of  other  novelists,  both  in  Great- 
Britain  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  deserve 
to  be  mentioned,  in  recounting  the  conspicuous 
writers  of  this  class,  which  belong  to  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  In  Great-Britain  female  novelists 
have  been  numerous  and  respectable.  Among 
these  Airs.  Brooke,  Mrs.  Inchbald,  Mrs.  Sheri- 
dan, Mrs.  Yearsley,  MIssSew^ard,  Miss  West, 
and  Miss  Williams  have  attracted  most  attention, 
and  been  the  objects  of  most  applause.  In  France, 
out  of  a  long  list  which  might  be  enumerated,  the 
fictitious  writings  of  M.  de  St.  Pierre3  Madame 
Genlis,  and  M.  Florian,  are  worthy  of  particu- 
lar distinction,  especially  on  account  of  their  pure 
moral  tendency.  In  Germany  the  writers  of  ro- 
mances and  novels,  during  the  age  under  review, 
were  extremely  numerous.  Of  these  Wieland 
is  entitled  to  the  first  place.  The  appearance  of 
his  Agathon  is  represented  as  a  grand  epoch  in  the 


b  By  the  Neiv  Philosophy  is  meant,  that  system  of  doctrines  concerning 
the  constitution  of  man,  and  concerning  morals  and  religion,  taught  by 
the  author  of  the  Systeme  de  la  Nature,  by  Helvetius,  and  Condorcet, 
and  afterwards  by  several  other  celebrated  writers,  both  of  France  and 
Great-Britain.  . 


Romances  and  Novels.  171 

history  of  fictitious  writing  in  that  country/*  Next 
to  Wieland,  Goethe  is  respectably  known  as  a 
novelist,  not  only  in  his  own  country,  but  also 
throughout  Europe.  In  a  word,  in  every  cultivated 
part  of  the  European  world  novel  writers  have  in- 
credibly  abounded,  in  modern  times;  but  the 
author  has  so  little  knowledge  even  of  the  names 
of  the  principal  works  of  this  kind,  and  so  much 
less  of  their  respective  merits  and  demerits,  that 
he  cannot  undertake  to  speak  of  them  in  detail. 

America  has  given  birth  to  few  productions  in 
the  department  of  romance  or  novel.  Indeed, 
no  work  of  this  nature  deserving  respectful  notice, 
had  appeared  in  the  United  States  prior  to  the 
year  1798,  when  Mr.  Charles  B.  Brown,  of  Phi- 
ladelphia, published  his  Wieland,  which  has  been 
since  followed  by  Ormond,  Arthur  Mervyn,  Edgar 
Huntly,  and  Jane  Talbot,  from  the  pen  of  the  same 
author.  Mr.  Brown  discovers,  in  these  several 
productions,  a  vigorous  imagination,  a  creative 
fancy,  strong  powers  of  description,  and  great 
command,  and,  in  general,  great  felicity  of  lan- 
guage. He  has  the  honour  of  being  the  first 
American  who  presented  his  countrymen  with  a 
respectable  specimen  of  fictitious  history;  and  is 
certainly  the  first  who  succeeded  in  gaining  much 
attention  to  his  labours  in  this  branch  of  literature. 

It  was  before  observed  that  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury was  the  Age  of  Novels.  Never  was  the  lite- 
rary world  so  deluged  with  the  frivolous  effusions 
of  ignorance  and  vanity,  in  this  form,  as  within  the 
last  thirty  years.  Every  contemptible  scribbler 
has  become  an  adventurer  in  this  boundless  field  of 
enterprise.     Every  votary  of  singular,  and  especi- 

e  Lessing,  a  German  critic,  of  great  learning  and  acuteness,  pronounced 
The  History  of  Agatbon  to  be  one  of  the  finest  efforts  of  genius  in  the 
eighteenth  century  ;  nay,  he  called  it  the  first  and  only  novel. of  the  Ger- 
mans, written  for  thinking  men  of  classical  taste. 


172  Romances  and  Novels. 

ally  of  licentious  opinions,  has  thought  this  a  conve- 
nient mode  of  disguising  and  serving  up  his  errors. 
The  thirst  for  this  species  of  composition  is  incon- 
ceivably ardent  and  extensive.  All  classes  of  per- 
sons in  society,  from  the  dignified  professional  cha- 
racter to  the  lowest  grades  of  labouring  indigence, 
seek  and  devour  novels.  These  ephemeral  produc- 
tions are  daily  composed,  translated,  revamped, 
and  reprinted,  to  indulge  the  growing  demand. 
What  will  be  the  effect  and  the  end  of  this  morbid 
appetite;  whether,  like  many  other  diseases,  it  will 
work  its  own  cure,  or  whether  it  will  go  on  to  in^ 
crease  as  long  as  human  society  shall  exist,  are 
questions  to  the  solution  of  which  the  friend  of  hu- 
man happiness  looks  forward  with  deep  solicitude. 

It  has  often  been  made  a  question,  whether  ro-r 
mances  and  novels  form  an  useful  kind  of  reading, 
or  the  contrary?  This  question,  fifty  years  ago,  was 
of  little  moment  compared  with  the  importance 
which  it  has  lately  assumed.  At  that  period  the 
number  of  novels  was  small,  and  the  popular  clas- 
ses of  them  sustained,  in  general,  a  tolerably  pure 
moral  character.  Since  that  time,  the  case  is,  un^ 
happily,  altered;  their  number  has  increased,  their 
character  is  so  changed,  and  the  task  of  discrimi^ 
nating  among  them  has  become  so  delicate  and  ar- 
duous, that  the  question  above  stated  must  now  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  interesting  that  can  be 
asked,  concerning  the  literary  objects  of  the  day, 
by  the  wise  and  affectionate  parent,  the  faithful 
guardian,  or  the  mind  of  general  benevolence.  It 
may  not  be  improper,  therefore,  before  taking  leave 
of  this  singular  feature  in  the  history  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  to  offer  two  or  three  brief  remarks 
on  the  general  tendency  of  the  class  of  writings  un- 
der consideration. 

That  fictitious  history,  when  constructed  on 
proper  principles,  and  executed  in  a  proper  manner, 


Romances  and  Novels.  173  ' 

may  be  productive  of  utility,  is  a  position  too  plain 
to  be  doubted.  It  is  one  of  the  most  powerful 
means  of  exciting  curiosity,  of  awakening  sympa- 
thy, and  of  impressing  the  understanding  and  the 
heart.  Such  fiction  "  may  do  more  good  to  many 
minds  than  the  solemnities  of  professed  morality, 
and  convey  the  knowledge  of  vice  and  virtue  with 
more  efficacy  than  axioms  and  definitions. "  On 
this  ground  it  was,  no  doubt,  that  the  infinitely 
wise  Author  of  our  religion  frequently  adopted  the 
form  of  parable  for  communicating  the  most  im- 
portant truths  to  his  hearers.  And,  on  the  same 
principle,  some  of  the  wisest  human  teachers  have 
used  the  vehicle  of  lively  and  interesting  fiction, 
known  to  be  such  at  the  time,  for  insinuating  into 
the  mind  moral  and  religious  lessons,  which,  in  a 
different  form,  might  not  so  readily  have  gained"  ad- 
mittance. It  is  obvious,  then,  that  to  this  kind  of 
writing,  as  such,  there  can  be  no  solid  objection. 
Novels  may  be  so  written  as  to  promote  the  cause 
both  of  knowledge  and  virtue.  They  may  be 
constructed  in  such  a  manner  as  will  tend  to  lead 
the  mind  insensibly  from  what  is  sordid  and  mean 
to  more  worthy  pursuits,  and  to  fill  it  with  pure, 
elevated  and  liberal  sentiments.  Nay,  it  may  be 
further  conceded,  that,  out  of  the  myriads  of  no- 
vels which  have  been  composed,  a  few  are,  in  fact, 
entitled  to  this  character,  and  have  a  tendency  to 
produce  these  effects. 

But  it  is  evident,  that  a  kind  of  writing  which, 
when  wisely  and  ingeniously  executed,  may  be 
conducive  to  the  best  purposes,  may  also,  in  the 
hands  of  the  unskilful  or  the  wicked,  produce  the 
worst  effects.  If  an  artfully  conducted  fiction  be 
so  well  fitted  to  interest  the  curiosity,  to  awaken 
sympathy,  and  to  impress  the  mind,  then  it  follows 
that  if  this  fiction  be  enlisted  on  the  side  of  cor- 
rupt principle,  or  licentious  practice,  it  must  do 


174  Romances  and  Novels. 

incalculable  mischief.  The  question  before  usa 
therefore,  must  be  solved  by  examining  the  influ- 
ence of  novels,  not  as  they  might  and  ought  to  be 
composed,  but  as  they  are  found  in  fact  to  be 
written.  We  are  not  to  assume  for  our  standard 
the  utility  which  zvould  be  derived  from  this  spe- 
cies of  writing,  were  it  confined  to  the  enlightened 
and  virtuous;  but  the  character  and  tendency  of 
that  heterogeneous  mass  which  is  daily  accumu- 
lating from  every  quarter  of  the  literary  world. 

What  then  is  the  general  character  of  modern 
novels?  The  most  favourable  estimate  that  can  be 
made  stands  thus : — Were  the  whole  number  which 
the  age  produced  divided  into  a  thousand  parts,  it 
is  probable  that  five  hundred  of  these  parts  would 
be  found  so  contemptibly  frivolous,  as  to  render 
the  perusal  of  them  a  most  criminal  waste  of  time. 
And  though  entirely  destitute  of  character,  yet  so 
far  as  they  are  the  objects  of  attention  at  all,  they 
can  do  nothing  but  mischief.  To  devote  the  time 
and  attention  to  works  of  this  kind,  has  a  tendency 
to  dissipate  the  mind;  to  beget  a  dislike  to  more 
solid  and  instructive  reading,  and  especially  to  real 
history;  and,  in  general,  to  excite  a  greater  fond- 
ness for  the  productions  of  imagination  and  fancy, 
than  for  the  sober  reasoning,  and  the  practical  in- 
vestigations of  wisdom. 

Of  the  remaining  five  hundred  parts,  four  hun- 
dred, and  ninety-nine  may  be  considered  as  posi- 
tively seductive  and  corrupting  in  their  tendency. 
They  make  virtue  to  appear  contemptible,  and  vice 
attractive,  honourable  and  triumphant.  Folly  and 
crime  have  palliative  and  even  commendatory 
names  bestowed  upon  them ;  the  omnipotence  of 
love  over  all  obligations  and  all  duties  is  continually 
maintained;  and  the  extravagance  of  sinful  passion 
represented  as  the  effect  of  amiable  sensibility. 
Surely  these  representations  can  have  no  other  ten- 


Romances  and  Novels .  175 

dency  than  to  mislead,  corrupt  and  destroy  those 
who  habitually  peruse  them,  and  especially  those 
who  give  them  a  favourable  reception. 

But  this  is  not  the  worst  of  the  evil.     A  portion 
of  this  latter  class  of  novels  may  be  charged  with 
being  seductive  and  immoral  on  a  more  refined 
plan.    They  are  systematic,  and,  in  some  instances, 
ingenious  and  plausible  apologists  for  the  most 
attrocious  crimes.    In  many  modern  productions  of 
this  kind  the  intelligent  reader  will  recognize  the 
following  process  of  representation.     Corrupt  opi- 
nions are  put  into  the  mouth  of  some  favourite  hero, 
the  splendour  of  whose  character,  in  other  respects, 
is  made  to  embellish  the  principles  which  he  holds, 
and  the  force  of  whose  eloquence  is  used  to  recom- 
mend the  most  unreasonable  dogmas.     When  this 
hero  commits  a  crime,  and  when  by  this  crime,  ac- 
cording to  the  fixed  law  of  the  Divine  government, 
he  is  involved  in  serious  difficulty,  if  not  lasting 
misery,    the    fashionable   novelist  endeavours   to 
throw  the  blame  on  the  religious  and  moral  insti- 
tutions of  the  world,  as  narrow,  illiberal  and  un- 
just.    When  a  woman  has  surrendered  her  chas- 
tity, and  prostituted  herself  to  a  vile  seducer;  and 
when  she  suffers  in  her  reputation  and  her  com- 
fort by  such  base  conduct,  all  this  is  ascribed  to 
the  "  wretched  state  of  civilization,"  to  the  "  de- 
plorable condition  of  society!"    Every  opportunity 
is  taken  to  attack  some  principle  of  morality  under 
the  title  of  a"  prejudice;"  to  ridicule  the  duties  of 
domestic  life,  as  flowing  from  "  contracted"  and 
c<  slavish"  views;  to   deny  the  sober  pursuits  of 
upright  industry  as  "  dull"  and  "  spiritless;"  and, 
in  a  word,  to  frame  an  apology  for  suicide,  adultery, 
prostitution,  and  the  indulgence  of  every  propen- 
sity for  which  a  corrupt  heart  can  plead  an  incli- 
nation. 


176  Romances  and  Novels. 

It  only  remains  to  speak  of  the  one  thousandth  part 
not  included  in  the  classes  already  characterized. 
Of  the  greater  portion  of  these  the  most  favourable 
account  that  can  be  given  is,  that  they  are  innocent 
and  amusing  compositions.  But  even  with  regard 
to  a  considerable  number  which  have  been  com- 
monly placed  among  the  good  and  useful  novels, 
a  correct  judge  would  scarcely  be  willing  to  pro- 
nounce them  innocent  without  some  qualification. 
After  all  these  deductions,  how  small  is  the  num- 
ber of  those  which  can  be  said  to  merit  a  perusal* 
or  which  can  be  considered  as  tending,  in  any  to- 
lerable degree,  to  enlighten  the  mind,  or  to  pro- 
mote the  interests  of  virtue  and  happiness !  So  small, 
indeed,  that  out  of  the  numerous  volumes  which  a 
simple  catalogue  of  the  novels  produced  in  the 
eighteenth  century  would  fill,  a  single  page  would 
embrace  all  that  could  be  with  propriety  recom- 
mended to  the  attention  of  the  youthful  mind. 

Many  novels  which  contain  no  licentious  prin- 
ciples or  indelicate  descriptions,  are  still  defective, 
inasmuch  as  they  are  not  pictures  of  nature.  When 
this  is  the  case,  though  they  be  not  chargeable 
with  making  a  direct  attack  on  the  fortress  of  vir- 
tue, yet  they  are  only  fitted  to  mislead.  To  fill 
the  mind  with  unreal  and  delusive  pictures  of  life, 
is,  in  the  end,  to  beguile  it  from  sober  duty,  and  to 
cheat  it  of  substantial  enjoyment.  Were  all  the 
mischief  presented  to  our  view  which  has  been 
done  to  thoughtless,  unsuspecting  minds,  by  ficti- 
tious writings  of  this  character,  it  would  be  found 
to  form  a  mass  of  crime  and  misery  too  great  for  the 
ordinary  powers  of  calculation. 

But  it  is  not  enough  that  the  fiction  be  true  to 
nature.  It  may  in  no  case  depart  from  the  proba- 
ble and  natural;  every  line  may  be  drawn  with  a 
strict  regard  to  the  original  character  designed  to 
be  represented;  the  most  transient  beholder  may 


Romances  and  Novels.  177 

pronounce  the  likeness  to  be  perfect;  and  yet  the 
view  may  be  fitted  to  corrupt  the  mind  of  every 
one  who  looks  upon  it.     The  truth  is,  there  are 
many  characters  which  ought  never  to  be  drawn 
in  fiction,  as  there  are  many  which  ought  never  to 
be  contemplated  in  fact.     And  he  who  regards  the 
welfare  of  a  child  will  be  as  anxious  to  withhold 
from  him  the  view  of  many  natural  and  lively  de- 
scriptions of  vice,  as  to  keep  him  from  the  com- 
pany of  those  who  are  really  vicious.     Cf  Many 
writers,"  says  a  celebrated   critic   and  moralist/ 
"  for  the  sake,  as  they  tell  us,  of  following  nature* 
so  mingle  good  and  bad  qualities  in  their  principal 
personages,  that  they  are  both  equally  conspicuous; 
and  as  we  accompany  them  through  their  adven- 
tures with  delight,  and  are  led  by  degrees  to  in- 
terest ourselves  in  their  favour,  we  lose  the  abhor- 
rence of  their  faults  because  they  do  not  hinder  our 
pleasure,  or  perhaps  regard  them  with  kindness 
for  being  united  with  so  much  merit.     There  have 
been  men,  indeed,  splendidly  wicked,  whose  en- 
dowments threw  a  brightness  on  their  crimes,  and 
whom   scarce  any  villainy  made  perfectly  detest- 
able, because  they  never  could  be  wholly  divested 
of  their  excellences;  but  such  have  been,    in  all 
ages,  the  great  corrupters  of  the  world;  and  their 
resemblance  ought  no  more  to  be  preserved  than 
the  art  of  murdering  without  pain."* 

Estimating  novels,  then,  not  as  they  might  be 
made,  but  as  they  are  in  fact,  it  may  be  asserted, 
that  there  is  no  species  of  reading  which,  promis- 
cuously pursued,  has  a  more  direct  tendency  to 

d  Dr.  Johnson.     Rambler,  vol.  i. 

e  On  this  principle  it  is  plain  that  such  a  character  as  Tom  Jones  ought; 
never  to  have  been  exhibited  by  a  friend  to  virtue.  And  though  the  cha- 
racters drawn  by  Richardson  are  by  no  means  so  liable  to  censure  on 
this  ground  as  several  of  those  by  Fielding,  yet  it  may  be  doubted  whe- 
ther the  Lovelace  of  the  former,  taken  in  all  its  parts,  be  a  character  calcu- 
lated to  make  a  virtuous  impression,  especially  on  the  youthful  mind._ 
VOL.   II.  2. A 


178  Romances  and  Novels. 

discourage  the  acquisition  of  solid  learning,  to  rill 
the  mind  with  vain,  unnatural,  and  delusive  ideas, 
and  to  deprave  the  moral  taste/  It  would,  perhaps, 
be  difficult  to  assign  any  single  cause  which  has 
contributed  so  much  to  produce  that  lightness  and 
frivolity  which  so  remarkably  characterize  the  lite- 
rary taste  of  the  eighteenth  century,  as  the  unex- 
ampled multiplication,  and  the  astonishing  popu- 
larity of  this  class  of  writings. 

The  friend  of  novels  will  perhaps  agree,  that 
the  promiscuous  perusal  of  them  is  dangerous,  and 
will  plead  for  a  discreet  selection.  But  who  is  to 
make  this  selection?  On  whom  shall  devolve  the 
perplexing  task  of  separating  the  wheat  from  the 
chaff,  the  food  from  the  poison?  If  amidst  the 
mighty  mass,  those  which  are  tolerably  pure,  and 
especially  those  which  are  calculated  to  be  useful* 
be  only  now  and  then  to  be  found,  as  a  few  scat- 
tered pearls  in  the  ocean,  shall  the  delicate  and  ar- 
duous task  of  making  the  choice  be  committed  to 
minds  "  unfurnished  with  ideas,  and  therefore  ea- 
sily susceptible  of  impressions;  not  fixed  by  prin- 
ciples, and  therefore  easily  following  the  current 
of  fancy;  not  informed  by  experience,  and  conse- 
quently open  to  every  false  suggestion,  and  partial 
account  r"  The  imminent  danger,  and  almost  cer- 
tain mischief  arising  from  a  choice  made  by  such 
minds  cannot  be  contemplated  by  those  who  feel 


.  J  The  celebrated  Dr.  Goldsmith,  in  writing  to  his  brother,  respect- 
ing the  education  of  a  son,  expresses  himself  in  the  following  strong 
terms,  which  are  the  more  remarkable,  as  he  had  himself  written  a  novel  :— 
"  Above  all  things,  never  let  your  son  touch  a  romance  or  novel ;  these 
paint  beauty  in  colours  more  charming  than  nature ;  and  describe  happi- 
ness that  man  never  tastes.  How  delusive,  how  destructive  are  those 
pictures  of  consummate  bliss !  They  teach  the  youthful  mind  to  sigh  after 
beauty  and  happiness  which  never  existed  ;  to  despise  the  little  good  which 
fortune  has  mixed  in  our  cup,  by  expecting  more  than  she  ever  gave;  and, 
in  general,  take  the  word  of  a  man  who  has  seen  the  world,  and  has 
studied  human  nature  more  by  experience  than  precept ;  take  my  word  for 
it,  I  say,  that  such  books  teach   us  very  little  of  the  world."     Life  of 

Goldsmith,  prefix  td  to  bis  Miscellaneous  Works. 


Romances  and  Novels.  179 

an  interest  in  human  happiness,  without  deep  anx- 
iety and  pain.  And  to  expect  a  wise  choice  to  be 
made  by  parents  and  instructors,  is  to  suppose,  what 
was  never  the  case  in  any  state  of  society,  that 
they  are  generally  enlightened  and  virtuous. 

On  the  whole,  the  answer  of  a  wise  preceptor 
to  the  main  question  respecting  the  utility  of  novels, 
would  probably  be  something  like  this: — That, 
wholly  to  condemn  them,  and  rigidly  to  forbid  the 
perusal  of  any,  in  the  present  state  of  the  literary 
world,  would  be  an  indiscreet  and  dangerous  ex- 
treme; that  reading  a  very  few,  therefore,  of  the 
best  is  not  unadviseable  ^  that  in  selecting  these, 
however,  great  vigilance  and  caution  should  be 
exercised  by  those  to  whom  the  delicate  and  diffi- 
cult task  is  committed ;  that  the  perusal  of  a  large 
number,  even  of  the  better  sort,  has  a  tendency  too 
much  to  engross  the  mind,  to  fill  it  with  artificial 
views,  and  to  diminish  the  taste  for  more  solid  read- 
ing; but  that  a  young  person  habitually  and  indis- 
criminately devoted  to  novels,  is  in  a  fair  way  to 
dissipate  his  mind,  to  degrade  his  taste,  and  to 
bring  on  himself  intellectual  and  moral  ruin. 

g  The  author  has  no  hesitation  in  saying,  that,  if  it  were  possible,  he 
would  wholly  prohibit  the  reading  of  novels.  Not  because  there  are  none 
worthy  of  being  perused ;  but  because  the  hope  that,  out  of  the  polluted 
and  mischievous  mass  continually  presented  to  the  youthful  mind,  a  tole- 
rably wise  choice  will,  in  many  instances,  be  made,  can  scarcely  be  thought 
a  reasonable  hope.  As,  however,  those  fictitious  productions  are  strewed 
around  us  in  such  profusion,  and  will  more  or  less  excite  the  curiosity  of 
youth,  the  plan  of  total  exclusion  is  seldom  practicable.  In  this  case  it  is, 
perhaps,  the  wisest  course  to  endeavour  to  regulate  the  curiosity  which 
cannot  be  prevented,  and  to  exercise  the  utmost  vigilance  in  making  a 
proper  choice  for  its  gratification,  and  in  restraining  this  gratification 
within  small  bounds.     For  it  may,  with  confidence,  be  pronounced,  that 

NO  ONE  WAS  EVER  AN  EXTENSIVE  AND  ESPECIALLY  AN  HABITUAL 
READER  OF  NOVELS,  EVEN  SUPPOSING  THEM  ALL  TO  BE  WELL  SE- 
LECTED, WITHOUT  SUFFERING  BOTH  INTELLECTUAL  AND  MORAL 
"INJURY,    AND  OF  COURSE  INCURRING  A  DIMINUTION  OF  HAPPINESS. 


(    iao   ) 


CHAPTER  XX. 


POETRY. 


POETRY,  in  one  form  or  another,  has  been  the 
growth  of  every  age  with  the  history  of  which 
we  are  acquainted;  and  the  eighteenth  century 
had  its  full  share  of  those  who  paid  their  court  to 
the  muses.  It  may  be  said  with  confidence,  in- 
deed, that  the  last  age  produced  a  far  greater  num- 
ber of  poets  than  any  former  period  of  the  same  ex- 
tent. But  it  must  be  confessed  that,  of  this  num- 
ber, few  are  entitled  to  the  character  of  distin- 
guished excellence.  The  mantle  of  Shakspeare 
or  of  Milton  has  not  fallen  upon  any  succeeding 
bard.  Since  the  death  of  the  latter,  more  than  a 
century  has  passed  away  without  producing  a  rival 
of  his  great  and  deserved  fame.  Still  it  may  be 
maintained  that  poets,  and  poetic  excellence,  have 
been  produced,  of  sufficient  distinction  to  do  high 
honour  to  modern  genius,  and  to  merit  a  respectful 
consideration. 

The  poetic  diction  and  versification  of  several 
modern  languages  have  been  much  enriched  and 
refined,  during  the  period  under  review.  Of  these 
improvements  it  may  be  proper  to  take  some  brief 
notice,  before  we  proceed  to  consider  the  particu- 
lar specimens  of  poetic  genius  which  belong  to  this 
period. 

During  the  period  in  question,  English  versifi- 
cation has  been  greatly  improved.  Though  Dry- 
den,  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  century,  had 
done  much  towards  the  promotion  of  this  object; 


Poetry.  iSl 

yet  the  style  of  English  poetry  was  left  by  him  in 
an  irregular,  harsh,  and  incorrect  state.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Mr.  Pope,  whose  successful  exertions 
to  polish,  refine,  and  regulate  the  language  of  our 
poetry,  are  well  known.  If  Dryden  displayed 
more  vigour  of  genius,  and  more  sublimity  of  con- 
ception than  Pope,  the  latter  undoubtedly  exhibits 
a  degree  of  correctness  and  elegance  of  diction, 
and  of  harmony  and  sweetness  of  numbers,  which 
had  never  been  equalled  by  any  preceding  poet, 
and  which  have  never  been  exceeded  since  his 
time.  "  New  sentiments,  and  new  images,"  says  a 
great  critic,  "  others  may  produce;  but  to  attempt 
any  further  improvement  of  versification  will  be 
dangerous.  Art  and  diligence  have  now  done  their 
best;  and  what  shall  be  added,  will  be  the  effort 
of  tedious  toil,  and  needless  curiosity. "A 

English  poetry  is  also  indebted  to  several  who 
have  written  since  Mr.  Pope.  The  names  of 
these,  and  the  nature  and  amount  of  the  services 
which  they  rendered,  will  be  more  fully  brought 
to  the  mind  of  the  intelligent  reader  in  reviewing 
hereafter  the  particular  works  by  which  they  are 
most  honourably  known  to  the  public. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
there  was  a  race  of  versifiers  in  Europe,  and  es- 
pecially in  Great-Britain,  who  have  been  called 
by  the  critics  metaphysical  poets  J  They  were  gene- 
rally men  of  learning,  and  many  of  them  endowed 
with  genius;  but  were  either  destitute  of  taste,  or 
possessed  only  that  which  was  false  and  perverted. 
Pedantic,  subtle,  obscure,  and  confused,  they  pre- 
sented absurd  and  gross  conceits,  rather  than  just 
images;  scholastic  refinements,  rather  than  copies 
of  nature;  and  far-fetched  ideas  and  illustrations^ 


£  Life  o/"Pope,  by  Dr.  Johnson. 
i  Life  of  Cowley,  by  Johnson. 


182  Poetry. 

to  display  their  reading,  rather  than  that  chaste 
simplicity  which  delights,  and  that  "  noble  ex- 
panse of  thought,  which  fills  the  whole  mind." 
This  race  of  poets,  if  such  they  maybe  called,  did 
not  become  extinct  till  towards  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Cowley,  Waller,  Den- 
ham,  and  many  others,  were  infected  with  the  false 
taste  which  they  had  propagated,  and  thus  ex- 
tended the  mischief.  Milton,  though  he  adopted, 
in  one  instance,  the  manner  of  these  metaphysical 
versifiers,  yet  in  general  disdained  it,  and  contri- 
buted much  to  discourage  the  unworthy  fashion. 
Dryden  went  still  further,  in  some  respects,  in 
rectifying  the  public  taste.  But  towards  the  close 
of  the  century,  a  style  of  poetry  which  had  so 
long,  and  on  such  high  authority,  maintained  its 
ground,  ceased  to  be  popular.  The  English  poetry 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  therefore,  is,  in  general, 
more  delicate  in  its  sentiments,  more  correct  and 
elegant  in  its  diction,  more  chaste  in  its  figures  and 
illustrations,  more  harmonious  in  its  numbers,  and, 
on  the  whole,  more  simple  and  natural  in  its  struc- 
ture, than  that  of  any  preceding  age. 

The  improvements  in  French  Poetry,  in  the  cen- 
tury under  consideration,  though  worthy  of  no- 
tice, have  been  less  numerous  and  remarkable. 
With  the  nature  of  these,  however,  and  the  per- 
sons to  whom  the  honour  of  effecting  them  is  chiefly 
due,  the  author  is  not  sufficiently  acquainted  to 
enable  him  to  speak  distinctly.  In  improving  the 
poetry  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  it  is  believed 
that  still  less  has  been  done  within  the  last  hun- 
dred years;  but  of  this,  also,  too  little  is  known 
to  warrant  an  attempt  to  give  any  distinct  views 
of  the  subject. 

The  poetic  character  of  Germany  rose  to  great 
eminence  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury.    Among  the  earliest  and  most  successful  la- 


Poetry.  183 

bourers  in  attuning  the  German  language  to  poetry- 
were  Haller,  Klopstock,  Gesner,  and  Wie- 
land.  Before  the  works  of  these  great  literary 
reformers  appeared,  this  language  could  scarcely 
boast  of  any  poems  superior  to  those  of  Gottsched 
and  Schoonaik.  A  poetic  diction  was  to  be 
formed.  Accordingly,  Baron  Haller  is  said  to 
have  written  his  poem  on  Reason,  Superstition,  and 
Infidelity,  for  the  express  purpose  of  proving  that 
the  German  language  was  capable  of  an  advan- 
tageous application  to  moral  and  philosophical 
poetry.  It  was  before  remarked,  that  Klopstock 
was  eminently  successful  in  improving  the  versifi- 
cation of  his  native  language.  His  Messiah,  on  its 
first  appearance,  was  severely  criticised,  on  ac- 
count of  the  novel  expressions  and  combinations 
which  it  contained;  but  these  innovations  soon 
gained  credit,  and  were  generally  adopted;  and 
the  author  may  be  said  to  have  formed  a  new  era 
in  German  poetry.  Gesner  and  Wieland  carried 
these  improvements  still  further.  Besides  these, 
the  writings  of  Gellert,  Lessing,  Kleist,  Gleim, 
and  several  others,  have  contributed  largely  to  en- 
rich and  refine  the  versification  of  their  country; 
insomuch  that  the  poetry  of  Germany,  which,  half 
a  century  ago,  was  scarcely  thought  worthy  of  no- 
tice, may  be  reckoned,  at  the  present  day,  among 
the  most  polished,  harmonious,  and  spirited  in  the 
republic  of  letters. 

The  poetry  of  Sweden  received,  during  the  same 
period,  improvements  of  a  similar  nature.  About 
the  middle  of  the  century  arose  Dahlin,  the  father 
of  Swedish  poetry.  He  attained  high  excellence 
in  the  Epic,  Tragic,  and  Lyric  departments  of  po- 
etic composition,  and  contributed  much  towards 
establishing  the  reign  of  taste  in  his  country.  To 
him  many  successors  have  arisen,  some  of  whom 
have  pursued,  with  honourable  success,  the  same 


184  Poetry, 

track.  Among  these,  the  most  conspicuous  are 
Count  de  Creutz,  Count  de  Gyllenborg,  Ma- 
dame  DE    NoRDENFLYCHT,    Count    OxENSTIERNA, 

Kellgren,  Leopold,  Lidner,  Torild,  and  seve- 
ral others,  whose  writings  abundantly  testify,  that 
the  Swedish  language,  notwithstanding  its  former 
defects,  is  capable  of  exhibiting,  under  the  hand  of 
a  master,  all  that  harmony,  tenderness,  and  force, 
which,  when  united,  render  the  productions  of 
the  poet  so  interesting.  The  labours  of  Kellg  r  en, 
in  particular,  for  a  number  of  years  past,  to  polish 
and  refine  the  versification  of  his  country,  are  said 
to  have  been  eminently  successful,  and  highly  ho- 
nourable to  his  character/ 

The  poetry  of  Russia  is  almost  wholly  the 
growth  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Cantemir, 
Ilinski,  Frediatofski,  and  a  few  others,  adven- 
tured in  this  new  field  at  a  very  early  period  of  the 
century;  but  they  were  rather  rhymers  than  poets. 
The  first  respectable  poet  in  the  Russian  language 
was  Lomonozof,  who  wrote  about  the  middle  of 
the  century.  His  compositions  are  principally  of 
the  lyric  kind,  which,  for  originality,  energy  of  lan- 
guage, and  sublimity  of  sentiment,  deserve  much 
praise.  He  was  followed  in  this  career  of  improve- 
ment by  Sumorokof,  who  is  represented  as  the 
founder  of  the  Russian  drama,  and  one  of  the  most 
successful  refiners  of  the  poetic  language  of  his 
country.  To  these  succeeded  a  number  of  poets, 
who  all  contributed  something  to  improve  the  ver- 
sification of  this  language;  among  the  most  distin- 
guished of  whom  are  Kheraskof  and  Karamsin. 
The  Rossiada  of  the  former,  as  it  has  been  greatly 
admired  by  the  author's  countrymen,  so  its  appear- 
ance doubtless  formed  an  important  era  in  the  pro- 
gress of  their  poetic  character.     The  various  works 

j  See  Catteau's  Vieiv  of  Stceden^  and  Acerbi's  Travels. 


Poetry.  ]85 

of  Karamsin  are  also  entitled  to  respectful  notice 
among  the  valuable  contributions  to  this  branch  of 
literary  improvement. 

After  these  preliminary  remarks  concerning  the 
refinements  and  riches  which  have  been  commu- 
nicated to  the  poetic  language  of  several  countries 
of  Europe,  it  may  be  proper  to  take  a  brief  review 
of  the  principal  productions  to  which  the  eigh- 
teenth century  gave  birth,  in  the  various  depart- 
ments of  poetry;  after  which  the  way  will  be  pre- 
pared for  some  general  reflections  on  the  poetic 
character  of  the  age. 

EPIC    POETRY. 

In  Epic  poetry  the  period  of  this  Retrospect 
produced  few  specimens  above  mediocrity.  The 
Henriade  of  Voltatre  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
list.  This  performance,  like  most  of  the  works  of 
its  celebrated  author/  discovers  great  genius,  and 
has  been  the  subject  of  high  applause,  particularly 
among  French  critics.  For  boldness  of  concep- 
tion, general  felicity  of  language,  and  just  and 
noble  sentiments,  it  is  entitled  to  honourable  dis- 
tinction. But  from  a  real  or  supposed  inaptitude 
of  the  French  language  for  the  majestic  character 
of  epic  composition;  from  the  indiscreet  choice  of 
a  modern  hero,  and  a  recent  train  of  events  in  the 

k  Few  literary  men  in  the  eighteenth  century  rendered  themselves  more 
conspicuous  than  Francis  Arouet  de  Voltaire.  He  was  born  in  1694, 
at  Paris,  where  he  died  in  1778.  Endowed  with  an  uncommon  share  of  wit, 
humour,  fancy,  and  taste,  he  was  distinguished  as  an  interesting  and  en- 
tertaining writer  for  more  than  half  a  century.  He  enjoyed  a  high  repu- 
tation, not  only  as  an  epic  poet,  but  also  as  a  dramatist,  an  historian,  a 
novelist,  an  essayist,  and  a  miscellaneous  writer.  His  talents  were  so  va- 
rious, that  there  is  scarcely  any  department  of  literary  labour  in  which  lu 
has  not  left  something,  which,  taken  alone,  would  show  him  to  have  been 
an  eminent  man.  It  is  to  be  lamented  that  his  talents  were  so  much  de- 
voted to  the  cause  of  impiety  and  licentiousness ;  and  that  he  so  often  be- 
trayed a  willingness  to  set  all  principle,  truth,  and  decorum  at  defiance  for 
the  purpose  of  attacking  the  religion  and  the  character  of  Christians. 
VOL.    II.  iB 


186  Poetry, 

author's  own  country,  as  the  subject;  and  from 
some  egregious  faults  in  the  incidents  and  ma- 
chinery, the  best  critics  have  denied  to  this  poem 
the  praise  of  first-rate  excellence. 

The  Leonidas  of  Mr.  Glover  is  one  of  the  most 
meritorious  efforts  in  the  department  of  epic  poe- 
try which  English  literature  presented,  during 
the  age  under  consideration.  This  work  has  long 
maintained  a  high  character  among  English  critics. 
The  Calvary  of  Mr.  Cumberland  is  entitled  to 
the  next  place;  a  poem  which  has  been  pro- 
nounced to  be  "  imbued  with  the  genuine  spirit  of 
Milton,  and  destined,  therefore,  most  probably, 
to  immortality. "  Though  the  author  has  not,  per- 
haps, given  sufficient  scope  to  his  imagination,  but 
confined  himself  too  closely  to  the  sacred  history, 
for  the  full  exertion  .of  his  poetic  strength,  yet  both 
the  plan  and  execution  of  his  work  do  him  im- 
mortal honour,  and  afford  high  pleasure  both  to 
the  critic  and  the  christian.  The  Joan  of  Arc,  by 
Mr.  Southey,  while  it  obviously  betrays  the  haste 
and  carelessness  with  which  it  was  written/  dis- 
covers, at  the  same  time,  the  undoubted  genius  and 
taste  of  the  author.  The  sentiments,  in  general, 
are  noble  and  generous;  the  characters  introduced 
are,  for  the  most  part,  well  supported;  the  imagery 
is  bold  and  impressive,  and  the  versification,  with- 
out being  always  correct,  is  easy,  harmonious,  and 
beautiful.  To  these  may  be  added  Arthur,  or  the 
Northern  Enchantment,  by  Mr.  Hole,  and  several 
other  epic  poems,  which,  though  not  entitled  to 
rank  with  those  above  mentioned,  yet  do  credit  to 
the  poetic  talents  of  their  respective  writers. 

But,  if  no  poet  since  the  time  of  Milton  have  ho- 
noured our  language  with  a  work  which  deserves  to 
be  compared  with  the  Paradise  Lost,  yet  this  period 

/  The  Joan  of  Are  probably  furnishes  the  first  instance  in  the  history  of 
literature  of  an  epie  poem  of  equal  length  being  written  in  six  iveeh  ! 


Poetry.  187 

has  not  passed  without  two  important  events.  The 
Iliad,  that  great  parent  stock  of  epic  productions, 
has  been,  in  the  course  of  the  last  century,  incor- 
porated with  English  poetry,  by  the  genius  of  Mr. 
Pope;  and  Fingaland  Temora  have  been  recalled 
from  a  long  oblivion  by  the  labours  of  Mr.  Mac- 
pherson.  In  the  former,  this  age  may  boast  of 
having  produced  the  noblest  translation  ever  pre- 
sented to  the  republic  of  letters;  and  in  the  latter 
of  having  recovered  a  work  of  true  and  uncommon 
genius,  which,  on  several  accounts,  will  probably 
be  read  with  pleasure  for  many  centuries  to  come, 
whatever  opinion  may  be  formed  with  respect  to 
its  origin. 

The  history  of  German  literature,  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  presents  us  with  an  epic  poem, 
which  some  have  brought  into  competition  with 
the  Paradise  Lost.  This  is  the  Messiah  of  Klop- 
stock,  a  work  which  has  been,  perhaps,  more 
read  throughout  the  literary  world,  and  honoured 
with  more  general  approbation  than  any  other 
poetic  production  of  the  same  country.  The  Mes- 
siah certainly  may  be,  in  some  respects,  ad- 
vantageously compared  with  the  Paradise  Lost. 
Though  the  former  does  not  possess  the  "  gigantic 
sublimity"  of  the  latter,  yet  it  elevates  the  mind 
by  the  grandeur  and  novelty  of  its  fiction,  and  dis- 
plays more  tenderness  and  pathos.'"  The  Death  of 
Abel  is  not  less  familiar  to  every  intelligent  reader, 

m  Herder,  an  eloquent  German  writer,  thus  compares  the  Paradise  Lost 
and  The  Messiah:  "  The  edifice  of  Milton  is  a  stedfast  and  well-planned 
building,  resting  on  ancient  columns:  Klopstock's  is  an  enchanted  dome, 
echoing  with  the  softest  and  purest  tones  of  human  feeling,  hovering  be- 
tween heaven  and  earth,  borne  on  angels'  shoulders.  Milton's  muse  is 
masculine:  Klopstock's  is  a  tender  woman,  dissolving  in  pious  ecstacies, 
warbling  elegies  and  hymns.  When  music  shall  acquire  among  us  the  high- 
est powers  of  her  art,  whose  words  will  she  select  to  utter  but  those  of 
Klopstock?"  Letters  on  Humanization.  This  is  quoted  from  the  Literary 
Hours  of  Dr.  Drake,  who  says  that  "  impartial  posterity  will  probably 
confirm  the  judgment  of  Herder."  A  good  English  translation  of  Tie 
JMessiah  is  still  a  desideratum. 


188  Poetry. 

and  its  merits  have  been  generally  acknowledged* 
Oberon,0  an  epic  romance,  by  Wieland,  discovers 
the  bold  and  vigorous  imagination,  and  the  felicity 
of  description,  for  which  the  author  has  been  long 
celebrated. 

In  the  Swedish  language  we  also  find,  in  the 
century  under  review,  two  respectable  productions 
of  the  epic  class.  The  first  is  entitled  Swedish  Li- 
berty,  and  is  a  performance  of  Dahlin,  who  was 
before  mentioned  as  the  father  of  poetry  in  that 
country.  This  work,  with  several  essential  faults, 
combines  beauties  and  excellences  which  render 
it  worthy  of  attention.  The  other  work,  which 
comes  under  the  same  denomination,  is  The  Pas- 
sage of  the  Belt,  by  Count  De  Gyllenborg,  from 
which  the  author  has  derived  considerable  reputa- 
tion among  his  countrymen.  The  Rossiada  of 
Kheraskof,  a  Russian  nobleman,  was  before  men- 
tioned as  entitled  to  respectful  notice,  not  only 
because  it  possesses  considerable  merit  as  a  poem; 
but  because  it  was  the  first  successful  attempt  to 
enlist  the  Russian  language  in  the  service  of 
the  epic  muse,  and  because  its  appearance  may  be 
considered  as  forming  an  important  epoch  in  the 
history  of  Russian  poetry. 

The  translations  of  different  epic  poems,  in  the 
course  of  this  century,  were  so  numerous,  that  to 
give  a  list  and  character  of  them  all  would  lead  us 
into  a  field  far  too  extensive.  But  it  would  be 
unpardonable,  even  in  this  short  sketch,  to  omit 
taking  notice  of  a  few  besides  those  which  have 


n  the  Death  of  Abel,  like  several  other  works  of  the  same  author,  is 
written  in  a  kind  of  loose  poetry,  unshackled  by  rhyme,  and  a  precise, 
uniform  adherence  to  measure.  It  has  been  said  that  this  method  of 
writing  is  peculiarly  suited  to  the  German  language.  It  is  to  be  lamented 
that  this  work,  as  well  as  the  Messiah,  has  never  been  advantageously 
presented  in  English  dress. 

o  Oberon  has  been  translated,  by  Mr.  Sotheby,  into  English,  in  a  style 
of  elegance  which  does  him  great  honour. 


Poetry.  189 

been  already  mentioned.  The  celebrated  Italian 
epic  poem  Gierusalemme  Liberata,  by  Tasso,  has 
also  been  elegantly  translated  into  English,  during 
this  period,  by  Mr.  Hoole.  The  three  first  books 
had  been  previously  presented  in  an  English  dress 
by  Mr.  Brooke,  on  whose  work  Mr.  Hoole  passes 
the  most  liberal  encomiums.  To  give  a  version 
of  the  whole  was  reserved  for  the  latter  gentle- 
man, who  executed  the  task  with  very  honour- 
able success.  Shortly  afterwards  the  Lusiad  of 
Camoens,  on  which  the  Portuguese  rest  their  claim 
to  epic  honours,  was  translated  into  English  by 
Mr.  Mickle,  which,  in  spirit  and  elegance,  is 
considered  by  some  respectable  critics,  as  rivalling 
the  first  productions  of  the  kind  in  our  language. 

The  Iliad  was  translated,  for  the  first  time,  and 
with  considerable  ability,  into  the  Spanish  lan- 
guage, about  thirteen  years  ago,  by  Don  Garcia 
Malo.  The  same  monument  of  Grecian  genius 
was  also  translated,  not  long  since,  with  high  re- 
putation, into  the  German  language,  by  Voss,  a 
distinguished  poet  of  that  country;  and  into  Italian 
by  the  Abbe  Cjesarotti.  These  several  works 
are  said  to  be  considered,  by  their  respective  coun- 
trymen, as  productions  of  the  first  class.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  translation  of  the  Iliad,  into 
English  blank  verse,  by  Mr.  Cowper,  which, 
though  a  more  faithful  version  than  the  work  of 
Mr.  Pope,  falls  short  of  it,  with  respect  to  merit 
as  a  poem.  The  JEneid  has  also  been  trans- 
lated into  German  by  Voss,  before  mentioned; 
into  Italian  by  M.  C.  Bendi;  and  into  English 
by  Mr.  C.  Pitt.  The  work  of  the  last  named 
poet,  though  inferior  to  Dryden's  translation 
in  vigour  and  sprightliness,  yet  excels  it  in  uni-, 
formity,  correctness,  and  splendour  of  versification. 
Lucan's  Pharsalia,  as  translated  into  English  by 
Rowe,  is  pronounced  by  an  eminent  critic  to  be 


190  Poetry. 

one  of  the  greatest  productions  of  English  poetry; 
to  exhibit  more  successfully  than  almost  any 
other  the  genius  and  spirit  of  the  original;  and 
to  deserve  a  much  higher  degree  of  approbation 
than  it  has  generally  obtained/ 


DIDACTIC    POETRY. 

In  this  species  of  poetic  composition  the  eigh- 
teenth century  produced  some  works  of  great  ex- 
cellence, some  of  which  may  be  compared,  without 
disadvantage,  with  the  best  specimens  of  any  pre- 
ceding age.  The  Essay  on  Criticism,  by  Mr. 
Pope,  as  it  was  one  of  his  earliest  compositions,  so  it 
is  also  one  of  his  best.9  In  the  opinion  of  a  great 
critic  "  it  exhibits  every  mode  of  excellence  that 
can  embellish  or  dignify  didactic  composition;  se- 
lection of  matter,  novelty  of  arrangement,  justness 
of  precept,  splendour  of  illustration,  and  propriety 
of  digression. "  The  Essay  on  Man,r  by  the  same 
author,  though  in  some  respects  of  inferior  excel- 
lence, has  been  incomparably  more  read,  and,  in 
general,  more  highly  applauded.     This  perform- 


/  Life  of Row e,  by  Johnson. 

q  He  produced  this  work  at  twenty  years  of  age,  and  is  pronounced  by 
Dr.  Johnson  never  afterwards  to  have  excelled  it. 

r  It  has  been  often  said  that  Lord  Bolingbroke  had  some  agency  in 
the  composition  of  the  Essay  on  Man.  The  following  extract  of  a  letter 
from  the  late  Reverend  Dr.  Hugh  Blair,  of  Edinburgh,  will  probably 
be  considered  as  deciding  the  fact.  "  In  the  year  1 763,  being  at 
London,  I  was  carried  by  Dr.  John  Blair,  Prebendary  of  Westminster, 
to  dine  at  old  Lord  Bathurst's.  The  conversation  turning  on  Mr.  Pope, 
Lord  Bat  hurst  told  us,  that  the  Essay  on  Man  was  originally  composed 
by  Lord  Bolingbroke,  in  prose,  and  that  Mr.  Pope  did  no  more  than 
put  it  into  verse  :  that  he  had  read  Lord  Bolingbroke's  manuscript  in  his 
own  hand  writing,  and  remembered  well  that  he  was  at  a  loss  whether 
most  to  admire  the  elegance  of  Lord  Bolingbroke's  prose,  or  the  beauty 
of  Mr.  Pope's  verse.  When  Lord  Bathurst  told  this,  Mr.  Mallet  bade 
me  attend,  and  remember  this  remarkable  piece  of  information;  as  by  the 
course  of  nature  I  might  survive  his  Lordship,  and  be  a  witness  of  his  hav- 
ing said  so."     Boswele's  Life  of  Johnson,  vol.  iii.  p.  133. 


Poetry.  191 

ance  is  not  distinguished  by  much  novelty  of  sen- 
timent, or  felicity  of  invention;  but  seldom  have 
common  ideas  been  presented  with  so  much 
"  beauty  of  embellishment,"  or  so  much  "  sweet- 
ness of  melody. "  Seldom  have  opinions  of  ques- 
tionable propriety  been  more  happily  disguised, 
or  exhibited  with  such  "  dazzling  splendour  of 
imagery,"  and  "  seductive  powers  of  eloquence." 
The  Fleece,  by  Mr.  Dyer,  notwithstanding  the 
small  degree  of  distinction  which  it  has  attained, 
is  pronounced,  by  good  judges,  to  stand  among 
the  most  excellent  poems  of  the  didactic  kind 
which  the  moderns  have  produced.  The  Pleasures 
of  the  Imagination,  by  Dr.  Akenside,  is  also  a 
performance  which  belongs  to  this  class;  and  is, 
doubtless,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens 
that  our  language  affords.  Genius,  learning,  taste, 
pure  morality,  and  liberal  philosophy  shine  in 
every  page.  Dr.  Armstrong,  in  his  celebrated 
poem  on  the  Art  of  Preserving  Health,  though  he 
did  not  aim  at  so  elevated  a  strain  as  Akenside, 
has  produced  a  work  of  high  excellence.'  Never 
sinking  below  the  dignity  of  his  subject,  he  is  al- 
ways chaste,  correct,  instructive,  and  elegant. 

The  English  Garden  of  Mr.  Mason,  may  also 
be  mentioned  as  a  very  finished  and  interesting 
specimen  of  didactic  composition.  Simple,  natu- 
ral, and  interesting  in  his  descriptions,  luminous  and 
instructive  in  his  philosophy,  and  purely  moral  in 
his  sentiments,  he  is  by  no  means  the  least  of  those 
authors  on  whose  works  the  honour  of  English  po- 
etry, for  the  last  fifty  years,  must  rest.  In  the  Botanic 
Garden,  by  Dr.  Darwin,  there  is  a  bold  attempt 
"  to  enlist  imagination  under  the  banner  of  sci- 
ence," to  an  extent  beyond  example.     In  this  at- 

s  Lord  Monboddo  pronounces  this  poem  to  be  the  best  specimen  of 
didactic  poetry  in  the  English  language,  and  equal  to  any,  ancient  or 
modern.      Origin  and  Progress  of  Language. 


192  Poetry. 

tempt  the  author  has  been  successful  to  a  degree 
which  does  him  much  honour  as  a  poet.  He  unites 
great  extent  of  learning  v/ith  singular  variety  and 
felicity  of  allusion,  and  a  pleasing  harmony  and 
splendour  of  versification.  But  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged that  there  is  an  uniformity,  which 
at  length  fatigues,  and  does  not  so  much  in- 
terest the  reader  as  many  less  correct  and  regular 
performances/  The  Minstrel,  by  Dr.  Beattie, 
which  may,  without  impropriety,  be  mentioned 
under  this  head,  besides  the  most  engaging  pic- 
tures of  nature,  abounds  in  the  richest  sentimental, 
moral,  and  poetical  beauties.  The  Essays  on 
Painting,  History,  and  Epic  Poetry,  by  Mr.  Hay- 
ley,  though  partaking  of  the  historical  and  de- 
scriptive, are  also  didactic  in  their  character,  and 
exhibit  a  very  large  share  of  erudition,  correctness, 
elegance,  and  poetic  taste. 

Besides  the  specimens  of  didactic  poetry  above 
mentioned,  English  literature  furnished  a  number 
of  others,  during  the  period  under  consideration, 
which  though  not  in  the  first  grade  of  excellence, 
are  yet  entitled  to  respectful  notice.  The  Chace, 
by  Somerville,  to  a  just  and  intelligent  view  of 
its  subject,  adds  felicity  and  variety  of  description, 

t  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  author  of  the  Loves  of  the  Plants  was 
considerably  indebted  to  the  Connubia  Florum  of  De  la  Croix,  both  in  the 
plan  and  execution  of  his  work.  This  beautiful  Latin  poem  wa9  first  pub- 
lished in  France,  about  the  year  1727,  and  was  reprinted  at  London, 
with  notes  and  observations  by  Sir  Richard  Clayton,  in  1791.  If  Dr. 
Darwin  had  ever  seen  De  la  Croix's  work,  (which  can  scarcely  be 
questioned)  some  deduction  must  be  made  from  his  claim  to  originality. 
Still,  however,  the  Botanic  Garden  will  be  entitled  to  no  small  share  of  ap- 
plause as  a  poem.  Though  many  of  the  opinions  of  the  author  must  be 
considered  as  erroneous;  though  his  poetry  evince  more  taste  than  ge- 
nius, more  labour  than  invention,  and  display  more  meretricious  glare  than 
chaste  ornament ;  and  though  much  of  the  praise  which  was  bestowed  on 
the  work  soon  after  its  appearance  must  be  deemed  extravagant ;  yet  since 
the  author  of  the  Pursuits  of  Literature  pronounced  judgment  upon  it,  its 
poetic  character  has,  perhaps,  in  the  estimation  of  many,  sunk  too  low. 
Dr.  Darwin  is  far  from  scanding  at  the  head  of  modern  poets;  but  he 
holds  a  place  greatly  above  mediocrity. 


Poetry.  193 

and  elegance^  of  language.  The  Infancy  of  Dr. 
Downman  discovers  him  to  have  been  a  ocod 
poet,  an  excellent  medical  phijosopher,  and  a 
friend  to  morality  and  virtue.  The  Mine,  a  dra- 
matic poem,  by  Mr.  Sargent,  is  considered  by 
good  judges  as  a  work  of  genuine  philosophical 
and  poetical  merit.  And  the  English  Orator,  by 
Mr.  Polwhele, displays  much  excellent  sentiment 
and  just  precept,  in  very  harmonious  verse. 

With  the  didactic  poetry  produced  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  during  the  last  age,  the  author 
has  but  little  acquaintance.  The  Pnedium  Rusti- 
cum  of  Father  Vaniere,  a  Jesuit  of  France,  pub- 
lished  about  the  beginning  of  the  century,  has  been 
ever  since  celebrated  in  the  literary  world  as  a 
specimen  of  elegant  Latin  poetry,  connected  with 
excellent  precepts  and  just  sentiments.  The 
Columbia  Florum  of  M.  De  la  Croix,  also  a 
Latin  poem,  and  published  a  few  years  after  the 
Pradiam  Rusticum,  is  scarcely  less  remarkable  for 
the  purity,  vivacity,  and  elegance  of  its  diction,  the 
ingenuity  of  its  fable  and  imagery,  and  the  general 
soundness  of  its  philosophy.  The  Abbe  Delille, 
in  his  Garden,  a  didactic  and  descriptive  work, 
presented  his  countrymen  with  a  poem,  which, 
though  it  does  not  display  great  invention,  has 
been  highly  and  justly  applauded  for  the  beauty  of 
its  descriptions,  and  the  excellence  of  its  versifi- 
cation. To  these  may  be  added  Baron  Haller's 
poem  on  Reason,  Superstition,  and  Infidelity,  be- 
fore mentioned,  and  which  is  worthy  of  its  illus- 
trious author. 

MORAL  AND  DEVOTIONAL  POETRY. 

The  moral  poetry  of  the  eighteenth  century 
may,  without  hesitation,  be  pronounced  superior, 
in  the  union  of  correctness,  purity  and  elegance, 

VOL.  II.  7.C 


194  Poetry. 

to  that  of  any  preceding  age.  This  superiority1 
is  so  remarkable  that  it  must  arrest  the  atten- 
tion of  the  most  careless  observer,  and  give  plea- 
sure to  every  friend  of  human  happiness.  The 
age,  it  is  readily  admitted,  gave  birth  to  much  li- 
centious poetry;  but  it  produced,  at  the  same 
time,  much  that  exhibits  a  degree  of  purity  and 
elevation  of  sentiment  to  which  the  history  of  lite- 
rature furnishes  no  parallel. 

The  Night  Thoughts,  and  the  Universal  Passion, 
by  Dr.  Young,  are  entitled  to  the  first  place  iri 
this  list.  In  these  works  the  celebrated  author 
has  employed  wonderful  sublimity  and  force  of 
imagination,  eloquence  and  cogency  of  reasoning, 
and  music  of  numbers,  in  conveying  the  most  im- 
portant truths  that  can  engage  the  attention  of 
mankind.  The  Ethical  Epistles,  and  some  other 
moral  productions  of  Pope,  are  models  in  their 
kind  which  have  never  been  excelled.  The  Vanity 
of  Human  Wishes,  a  poem  in  imitation  of  the 
tenth  satire  of  Juvenal,  by  Dr.  Johnson,  has  been 
pronounced  as  high  an  effort  of  ethic  poetry  as 
any  language  can  show.  The  Task,  by  Mr.  Cow- 
per,  is  one  of  the  signal  honours  of  the  age,  in 
this  class  of  poetic  compositions.  For  purity  of  sen- 
timent, chasteness  of  description,  simplicity  and 
energy  of  style,  and  a  vein  of  original  and  well  di- 
rected satire,  this  work  will  be  admired  as  long  as 
taste  and  virtue  exist. 

The  eighteenth  century  is  also  distinguished  by 
the  Devotional  poetry  which  it  produced.  The 
difficulty  of  this  species  of  composition  has  been 
found  and  acknowledged,  at  all  periods  in  which 
it  was  undertaken.  Before  the  commencement  of 
the  age  under  consideration,  theological  doctrines, 
and  portions  of  sacred  history,  had  been  made  the 
subject  of  poetry,  by  a  number  of  distinguished 
writers.     Versions  of  the  Psalms  had  been  parti- 


Poetry.  195 

cularly  attempted  by  several  persons  with  tolerable 
success.  Among  these  the  version  of  Brady  and 
Tate  held  the  first  place  in  the  English  language. 
Indeed  some  parts  of  their  work  were  so  well  per- 
formed that  comparatively  few  of  their  successors 
have  attained  equal  excellence. 

But  among  all  the  sacred  poetry  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  that  of  Dr.  Watts  stands  preemi- 
nent. His  plan  of  evangelizing  the  Psalms  of 
David,  and  accommodating  them  to  the  worship 
of  God  under  the  present  dispensation,  as  it  was 
equally  new  and  ingenious,  so  it  has  received  an 
unusual  degree  of  approbation,  and  has,  perhaps, 
been  more  useful  than  any  other  work  in  this  de- 
partment of  composition  that  was  ever  presented 
to  the  world.  Simplicity,  smoothness,  harmony, 
and  pious  elevation  remarkably  characterize  his 
verse.  Next  to  the  sacred  poetry  of  Dr.  Watts, 
the  specimens  produced  by  Mr.  Addison,  Dr. 
Doddridge,  Mr.  Pitt,  Mr.  Merrick,  Dr.  Black- 
cock, Mr.  Logan,  and  several  others,  possess  a 
high  degree  of  merit.  In  this  department  of  poetry 
it  is  believed  that  Great-Britain  has  excelled  all 
other  countries. 

Poetical  versions  of  the  Psalms  made,  during 
this  period,  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  were  nu- 
merous; but  of  these  a  very  small  portion  are 
worthy  of  notice.  The  Hymns  of  Gellert,  a  ce- 
lebrated poet  of  Germany,  are  said  to  be  entitled  to 
a  place  in  the  first  class  of  this  kind  of  writings. 

satirical  poetry. 

In  this  department  of  poetry  the  eighteenth 
century  is,  on  the  whole,  superior  to  any  preceding 
age.  Two  satirical  poets  of  great  eminence  had 
flourished  in  Europe  towards  the  close  of  the  pre- 
ceding age.    Boileau  and  Dryden,  equal  in  most 


196  Poetry. 

respects  to  the  great  Roman  satirists,  and  in  some 
superior  to  them  all,  brought  modern  satire  to  a 
very  high  degree  of  excellence.  Dryden  was 
the  first  who  displayed  with  success  the  power  of 
the  English  language  in  this  kind  of  composition. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  the  candidates  for  sati- 
rical fame  were  numerous;  and  in  variety  of  man- 
ner, correctness  of  taste,  purity  of  virtue,  and,  in 
some  instances,  in  wit,  humour,  and  force  of  ridi- 
cule, may  be  said  to  have  exceeded  all  their  pre- 
decessors. 

In  this  list  Mr.  Pope  is  entitled  to  the  first  place. 
His  Satirical  Epistles,  his  Imitations  of  the  ancient 
satirists,  his  Dunciad,v  and  several  other  per- 
formances of  a  similar  kind,  have  been  long  ad- 
mired. In  keenness  of  satire,  energy  of  descrip- 
tion, condensation  of  thought,  and  vivacity  and 
correctness  of  style,  he  is,  perhaps,  superior  to  all 
who  went  before  him.  And  though  the  moral 
tendency  of  some  of  his  pictures  may  be  questioned, 
yet  he  lashes  vice  with  great  force  and  effect.*    The 

v  Some  of  the  images  in  the  Bunciad  are  very  gross  and  disgusting. 
Pope  had  too  much  of  that  fondness  for  impure  ideas  which  was  so  con- 
spicuous,  and  carried  so  much  further  in  the  writings  of  Swift. 

u  The  author  of  the  Pursuits  of  Literature  thus  speaks  of  this  great  poet ; 
"  The  sixth  and  last  of  this  immortal  Brotherhood,  (the  satirists)  in  the 
fulness  of  time,  and  in  the  maturity  of  poetical  power,  came  Pope.  All 
that  was  wanting  to  his  illustrious  predecessor  found  its  consummation  in 
the  genius,  knowledge,  correct  sense,  and  condensation  of  thought  and  ex- 
presssion,  which  distinguished  this  poet.  The  tenour  of  his  life  was  pecu= 
liarly  favourable  to  his  office.  He  had  first  cultivated  all  the  flowery 
ground*  of  poetry.  He  had  excelled  in  description,  in  pastoral,  in  the 
pathetic,  and  in  general  criticism;  and  had  given  an  English  existence  in 
perpetuity  to  the  father  of  all  poetry.  Thus  honoured,  and  with  these 
pretensions,  he  left  them  all  for  that  excellence,  for  which  the  maturity  of 
his  talents  and  judgment  so  eminently  designed  him.  Familiar  with  the 
great ;  intimate  with  the  polite ;  graced  by  the  attentions  of  the  fair;  ad- 
mired by  the  learned;^  favourite  with  the  nation  ;  independent  in  an  ac- 
quired opulence,  the  honourable  product  of  his  genius  and  industry ;  the 
companion  of  persons  distinguished  for  birth,  high  fashion,  rank,  wit,  or 
virtue  ;  resident  in  the  centre  of  all  public  information  and  intelligence ; 
every  avenue  to  knowledge  and  every  mode  of  observation  were  open  to  his 
curious  prying,  piercing,  and  unwearied  intellect.  His  works  are  so  ge- 
nerally read  and  studied,  that  I  should  not  merely  fatigue,  but  I  should  al- 
most insult  you  by  such  a  needless  disquisition." 


Poetry.  197 

Love  of  Fame  the  Universal  Passion,  byY)\\  Young, 
though  mentioned  under  a  preceding  head,  is  also 
entitled  to  a  place  among  the  best  satirical  pro- 
ductions of  the  age.  The  characters  are,  in  general, 
well  selected  and  ably  drawn,  the  illustrations  are 
happy,  the  sentiments  just,  the  imagery  correct  and 
various,  and  the  satire  at  once  easy,  vivacious  and 
moral. 

The  satirical  poetry  of  Dean  Swift  has  various 
kinds  and  a  high  degree  of  poetic  excellence;  but 
delicacy  is  by  no  means  one  of  its  attributes.  His 
wit  is  often  extremely  happy,  and  his  ridicule  just, 
lively,  and  powerful.  "  His  diction  is  correct, 
his  numbers  smooth,  and  his  rhymes  exact.  There 
seldom  occurs  a  laboured  expression,  or  a  redun- 
dant epithet.  All  his  verses  exemplify  his  own 
definition  of  a  good  style;  they  consist  of  proper 
words  in  proper  places.11  But  the  levity  with 
which  he  frequently  treats  the  most  serious  subjects 
is  altogether  unpardonable ;w  and  the  unnatural 
fondness  which  he  manifests  for  coarse  indelicacy, 
and  for  images  drawn  from  every  source  of  physical 
impurity,  cannot  but  fill  with  disgust  the  mind  of 
every  virtuous  reader.* 

•w  "  I  know  not,"  says  Dr.  Beattie,  "  whether  this  author  is  not  the; 
pnly  human  being  who  ever  presumed  to  speak  in  ludicrous  terms  of  the 
last  judgment.  His  profane  verses  on  that  tremendous  subject  were  not 
published,  so  far  as  I  know,  till  after  his  death:  for  Chesterfield's 
letter  to  Voltaire,  in  which  they  are  inserted,  and  spoken  of  with  ap- 
probation, (which  is  no  more  than  one  could  expect  from  such  a  critic) 
jtnd  said  to  be  copied  from  the  original  in  Swift's  hand-writing,  is  dated 
in  175a.  But  this  is  no  excuse  for  the  author.  We  can  guess  at  what  was 
in  his  mind  when  he  wrote  them ;  and  at  what  remained  in  his  mind 
while  he  could  have  destroyed  them,  and  would  not.  I  mean  not  to  insi- 
nuate that  Swift  was  favourable  to  infidelity.  There  is  good  reason  to 
believe  he  was  not ;  and  that,  though  many  of  his  levities  are  inexcuseable, 
he  could  occasionally  be  both  serious  and  pious.  In  fact,  an  infidel  clergy- 
man would  be  such  a  compound  of  execrable  impiety,  and  contemptible 
meanness,  that  I  am  unwilling  to  suppose  there  can  be  such  a  monster. 
The  profaneness  of  this  author  I  impute  to  his  passion  fcr  ridicule,  and  rage 
of  witticism  ;  which,  when  they  settle  into  a  habit,  arid  venture  on  liberties 
with  what  is  sacred,  never  fail  to  pervert  the  mind,  and  harden  the  heart." 

x  Instances  of  this  fault   are    so   numerous   and    offensive    in  Swift's 
writings,  that  no  further  remarks 
force  the  criticism. 


198  Poetry. 

The  satires  of  Churchill  display  great  vigour 
both  of  thought  and  language;  and  though  the 
boldness  of  their  abuse,  and  the  nature  of  their 
subjects  were,  in  some  measure,  the  ground  of 
their  popularity,  while  the  author  lived;  yet  they 
have  certainly  great  strength,  and  possess  no  in- 
considerable merit  in  their  way.  Vicious  as  was 
the  character  of  the  man,  he  knew  how  to  expose 
and  correct  vice.  The  Rosci ad,  and  the  Prophecy 
of  Famine  may  be  regarded  as  the  best  of  his 
poems.  London,  a  poem  in  imitation  of  the  third. 
satire  of  Juvenal,  by  Dr.  Johnson,  was  one  of 
the  early  displays  of  that  genius  which  afterwards 
shone  with  such  distinguished  lustre,  and  filled  so 
large  a  space  in  the  literature  of  the  age.  The 
Faust,  of  the  celebrated  Goethe,  of  Germany, 
occupies  a  high  place  in  the  list  of  modern  satirical 
writings.  The  Table  Talk,  the  Progress  of  Error, 
and  some  other  satirical  pieces,  by  Cowper,  in 
purity,  humour,  dignity  and  force,  have  seldom 
been  exceeded  in  any  language.  The  Baviad 
and  Maviad,  of  Mr.  Gifford,  have  received  much 
applause  from  some  of  the  critics  of  Great-Bri- 
tain. To  these  may  be  added  The  Pursuits  of 
Literature,  a  satirical  poem,  published  a  few 
years  ago,  by  an  anonymous  hand.  In  this  work 
every  friend  of  truth,  virtue,  and  sound  learn- 
ing will  find  much  to  approve  and  admire.  A 
large  portion  of  the  literary  and  moral  opinions 
which  it  contains  are  doubtless  entitled  to  the 
warmest  approbation.  But  the  judicious  reader 
will  also  find  much  to  condemn.  The  author  dis- 
covers, on  many  occasions,  a  bitterness  of  preju- 
dice, and  a  rage  for  satire,  which  frequently  lead 
him  astray,  and  which  detract  greatly  both  from 
the  dignity  and  the  value  of  his  work.  His  pe- 
dantic fondness  for  quotation  is  indulged  to  a  de- 
gree which  disfigures  his  pages,  and  encumbers 


Poetry.  199 

and  weakens  his  meaning;  and  after  all,  his  notes 
are  so  much  more  spirited  and  valuable  than  his 
poetry,  that  the  latter  will  seldom  be  read  except 
as  an  introduction  to  the  former/ 

Under  the  head  of  Satire  falls  that  mock-heroic 
poetry,  which  is  a  species  of  composition  almost 
wholly  peculiar  to  modern  times,  and  of  which  the 
last  age  has  been  abundantly  prolific.  Of  this 
kind  of  poetry  The  Rape  of  the  Lock,  by  Pope,  is 
a  specimen  of  first-rate  excellence.  In  this  work, 
novelty  of  imagery,  fertility  of  invention,  felicity 
of  wit,  and  sweetness  of  versification,  are  combined 
in  an  exquisite  degree.  The  Triumphs  of  Temper, 
by  Mr.  Hayley,  may  be  considered  as  belonging 
to  the  same  class.  And  though  far  from  being 
equal  to  the  immortal  production  of  Pope,  it  dis- 
plays a  degree  of  genius,  taste,  and  humour  highly 
honourable  to  the  author. 

The  greater  part  of  the  poetry  of  a  certain  Bri- 
tish satirist,  who  calls  himself  Peter  Pindar, 
also  belongs  to  this  class.  His  writings  abound 
in  humour,  which,  though  frequently  gross,  in- 
dicates talents  of  no  common  grade;  and  in  wit, 
which  though  generally  eccentric,  and  frequently 
devoted  to  the  worst  purposes,  manifests  extent 
of  learning  and  force  of  imagination.  Aware  that 
quaint  phrases,  whimsical  allusions,  and  laughable 
conceits,  when  presented  unmixed,  will  soon 
cease  to  please,  he  has  taken  care  to  infuse  into 

y  The  author  of  this  singular  work  is  still  unknown.  That  he  has  great 
learning,  and  a  comprehensive  and  vigorous  mind,  cannot  be  doubted ; 
and  that  in  prose  he  expresses  himself  with  much  force,  vivacity,  and  taste, 
is  no  less  evident.  But  I  must  be  permitted,  on  many  subjects,  to  call  in 
question  both  the  candour  of  his  temper,  and  the  rectitude  of  his  judg- 
ment ;  and  as  a  poet,  notwithstanding  all  the  applause  which  has  been 
heaped  upon  him,  I  must  consider  him  far  below  the  great  masters  among 
whom  he  affects  to  take  his  station,  and  with  whom  he  has  the  presump- 
tion to  compare  himself.  His  work  is  one  of  those  which  derive  their  chief 
importance  and  popularity  from  the  praise  and  aspersion  of  living  characters 
with  which  they  abound;  and  which,  in  a  few  years,  must  fall  into  ob- 
livion. 


200  Poetry. 

many  of  his  pieces  a  considerable  portion  of  sen- 
timent and  tenderness,  and  sometimes  to  elevate 
his  reader  by  an  unexpected  stroke  of  the  sublime.2 

Since  the  days  of  Butler  many  specimens  of 
that  burlesque  poetry  adopted  by  him  in  his  Hudi- 
brass,  have  been  given  to  the  public;  but  few  of 
them  are  entitled  to  the  praise  of  high  excellence. 
Probably  the  most  successful  imitations  of  the  Hu- 
dibrastlc  manner  are  to  be  found  in  the  Alma  of 
Prior,  and  the  M'Fingal  of  Mr.  Trumbull,  a 
respectable  poet  of  our  own  country.  The  merit 
of  the  former  is  so  great,  that  Mr.  Pope,  with  all 
his  poetic  fame,  expressed  a  wish  to  have  been  the 
author  of  it;  and  the  latter  has  been  pronounced, 
by  good  judges,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  to 
be  nearly  equal  to  its  great  model. 

M.  Gressett,  a  French  poet  of  high  reputation* 
has  shown,  in  his  Vert-Vert,  and  in  his  Chartreuse, 
that  between  the  heroic  and  the  burlesque  there  is 
still  another  species  of  poetry,  partaking  in  some 
degree  of  the  characters  of  both.  A  kind  of  com- 
position which,  while  it  displays  some  of  the  attri- 
butes of  moral  and  serious  poetry  ^  at  the  same 
time  embraces  the  features  of  the  satiric,  the  gay* 
and  the  refined  comic,  in  a  very  pleasing  degree. 

About  fifty  years  before  the  commencement  of 
the  century  under  review,  began  the  fashion  of 
imitating  the  great  satirists  of  Rome,  or  adapting 
ancient  poetry  to  modern  characters  and  manners. 
This  kind  of  poetical  exercise  has  continued  in 
vogue  to  the  present  day,  and  the  number  of  those 
who  have  made  trial  of  their  genius  in  this  way 
has  greatly  increased.     Of  this  imitation  the  sa- 

z  The  real  name  of  this  writer  is  Walcott.  While  justice  is  done  to 
his  talents,  which,  in  a  certain  line,  are  really  great,  his  faults  and  vices 
ought  not  to  pass  without  censure.  His  blasphemous  impiety  cannot  be 
viewed  by  the  christian  without  abhorrence ;  while  the  injustice  and  ma- 
lignity displayed  against  private  character,  in  many  of  his  writings,  must 
be  regarded  with  cordial  detestation  by  every  honest  man. 


Poetry.  201 

tires  of  Horace,  Juvenal,  and  Persius,  have  all 
been  the  objects.  And  among  these  imitators  are 
found  the  names  of  Pope,  Johnson,  Gifford, 
Lewis,  and  several  other  British  poets. 

descriptive  poetry. 

In  Descriptive  poetry  the  last  age  may  lay  claim 
to  the  character  of  distinguished  excellence.  It 
not  only  produced  more  in  quantity,  but  also  much 
of  a  superior  quality  to  that  of  which  any  preceding 
period  can  boast.  The  Tale  of  the  Hermit,  by 
Dr.  Parnell,  deserves  high  praise  for  justness  of 
sentiment,  and  delicacy  and  liveliness  of  colouring. 
The  Windsor  Forest  of  Pope  also  belongs  to  the 
same  class,  and  for  variety  and  elegance  of  de- 
scription, and  particularly  for  a  happy  interchange 
of  the  descriptive,  the  narrative,  and  the  moral, 
possesses  great  merit.  But  the  work  entitled  to 
the  highest  place  in  this  department  of  poetry, 
is  the  Seasons,  by  Thomson.  This  writer  may  be 
said  to  have  created  a  new  species  of  poetry. 
cc  His  mode  of  thinking  and  of  expressing  his 
thoughts  is  original.  His  blank  verse  is  not  the 
blank  verse  of  Milton,  or  of  any  preceding  poet. 
His  numbers,  his  pauses,  his  diction,  are  of  his 
own  growth,  without  transcription,  without  imi- 
tation. He  thinks  in  a  peculiar  strain;  and  he 
thinks  always  as  a  man  of  genius.  He  looks  round 
on  nature  and  life  with  the  eye  which  nature  be- 
stows only  on  a  poet;  the  eye  that  distinguishes 
in  every  thing  presented  to  its  view,  whatever 
there  is  on  which  imagination  can  delight  to  be 
detained;  and  with  a  mind  that  at  once  compre- 
hends the  vast,  and  attends  to  the  minute.  He 
leads  us  through  the  appearances  of  things  as  they 
are  successively  varied  by  the  vicissitudes  of  the 
year;  and  imparts  to  us  so  much  of  his  own  en- 

VOL.   II.  2D 


20<2  Poetry, 

thusiasm,    that    our   thoughts    expand    with   his 
imagery,  and  kindle  with  his  sentiments. "a 

Kleist,  of  Germany,  in  the  same  department 
of  poetic  composition,  has  been  compared  with 
Thomson,  and  is  said,  by  some  of  his  country- 
men, to  have  attained  nearly  equal  excellence.  A 
similar  comparison  has  also  been  made  between 
the  immortal  British  bard  and  Delille,  of  France, 
who,  in  his  I  J  Homme  des  Champs,  or  Rural  Phi- 
losopher, presented  his  countrymen  with  a  poem  of 
acknowledged  merit.  Though  in  this  work,  as 
well  as  in  that  which  was  before  mentioned,  there 
is  but  little  display  of  invention;  yet  for  correctness 
and  elegance  of  versification,  it  sustains  a  very 
high  character. 

The  Traveller,  and  The  Deserted  Village,  by 
Goldsmith,  are  so  well  known,  and  have  been  so 
generally  admired,  that  a  formal  and  detailed  ac- 
count of  their  beauties  is  altogether  unnecessary. 
His  versification  has  been  pronounced  more  sweet 
and  harmonious  than  that  of  any  other  poet;  and 
both  his  sentiments  and  imagery  display  excellence 
of  the  first  order.  The  Wanderer,  by  Savage, 
discovers  a  large  portion  of  those  various  and  ex- 
traordinary powers  which  distinguished  that  un- 
fortunate and  degraded  man.6  It  abounds  with 
beautiful  imagery,  with  "  strong  descriptions  of 
nature,  and  just  observations  on  life."  The  Ship- 
icreck,  by  Falconar,  is  well  known,  and  has 
been  universally  esteemed,  as  abounding  with  the 
richest  beauties.     Scarcely,  if  at  all,  inferior  in  de- 

a  Life  of  Thomson,  by  Johnson. 

b  It  is  generally  known  that  this  extraordinary  man  was  the  son  of 
Anne,  Countess  of  Macclesfield,  by  an  adulterous  connection  with 
Earl  Rivers.  His  great  talents;  the  unnatural  cruelty  of  his  mother; 
his  degrading  vices;  his  accumulated  distresses,  and  his  melancholy  end, 
have  been  so  often  the  subject  of  mingled  astonishment  and  regret,  that  to 
attempt  to  describe  them  is  as  unnecessary  as  it  would  be  unpleasant.  He 
was  born  in  1 698,  and  died  in  1743,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  instances 
of  unfortunate  genius  that  the  age  produced. 


Poetry.  203 

scriptive  excellence  to  any  that  have  been  men- 
tioned, are  some  of  the  poems  of  Robert  Burns, 
the  Ayrshire  bard.  Though  his  versification  is 
frequently  faulty,  yet,  for  ease  and  vigour  of  lan- 
guage, for  strong  descriptive  powers,  and  a  vein  of 
rich  and  exquisite  humour,  his  productions  have 
few  rivals.  None  can  read  the  works  of  this  justly 
celebrated  writer  without  admiring  the  genius 
which,  amidst  so  many  difficulties  and  discourage- 
ments, could  soar  so  high;  nor  without  lamenting 
the  misfortunes  and  the  vices  which,  with  such  a 
genius,  and  amidst  so  many  excitements  to  virtue, 
could  sink  him  so  low. 

Walks  in  a  Forest,  and  the  Vales  of  Wever,  by 
Mr.  Gisborne,  display  a  very  honourable  share  of 
original  and  strong  descriptive  powers.  A  Tour 
through  Wales,  by  Mr.  Sotheby;  Grove-Hill,  by 
Mr.  Maurice;  The  Sea,  by  Mr.  Bidlake;  The 
Pleasures  of  Memory,  by  Mr.  Rogers,  and  the 
Pleasures  of  Hope,  by  Mr.  Campbell,  are  all  con- 
sidered by  critics  as  possessing  rich  and  various  po- 
etic beauties.  The  Farmer  s  Boy,  by  Robert 
Bloomfield,  to  ease  and  sweetness  of  versification, 
adds  descriptions  of  such  original  and  inimitable 
excellence,  as  shows  that  they  were  drawn  from 
nature;  and  it  possesses  likewise  a  vein  of  senti- 
ment and  morality  of  the  most  elevated  kind. 


pastoral  poetry. 


The  Pastoral  poetry  of  the  eighteenth  century 
is  also  highly  honourable  to  modern  genius.  A 
brief  review  of  the  principal  names  which  belong 
to  this  class  of  authors  will  show  that  the  last,  with 
respect  to  this  kind  of  poetic  excellence,  may  be  ad- 
vantageously compared  with  any  former  age. 

The  pastorals  of  Pope,  though  not  equal  to 
most  of  his  other  works,  have  yet  considerable 


204  Poetry. 

merit  to  recommend  them.  The  pastorals  of 
Phillips,  published  about  the  same  time,  may  be 
considered  as  occupying  nearly  the  same  grade  of 
excellence.  In  the  works  of  Gay  and  Shenstone 
are  also  found  some  specimens  of  this  kind  of  com- 
position, which  have  generally  a  place  assigned 
them  among  the  pastorals  of  superior  character. 
The  Shepherd's  Week  of  the  former,  and  the  Pas- 
toral Ballad  of  the  latter,  are  considered  among 
the  most  meritorious  performances  of  their  kind  in 
our  language.  The  Despairing  Shepherd,  of  Rowe, 
is  also  worthy  of  high  praise;  and  the  various  pas- 
toral productions  of  Collins,  in  richness  and 
strength  of  description,  in  justness  and  simplicity  of 
sentiment,  have  rarely  been  excelled.  But  infe- 
rior to  none  that  have  been  mentioned  is  the  Gen- 
tle Shepherd,  of  Allan  Ramsay,  a  work  of  great 
and  original  genius,  in  which  a  happy  delineation 
of  characters,  an  affecting  exhibition  of  incidents, 
and  a  captivating  simplicity  and  tenderness  re- 
markably prevail. 

But  among  all  the  pastoral  poetry  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  the  Idylls  of  Gesner  unques- 
tionably hold  the  first  place.  He  has,  indeed, 
been  pronounced  the  greatest  pastoral  poet  that 
ever  lived,  not  excepting  Theocritus  himself,  the 
father  of  this  species  of  poetry.  In  the  novelty  of 
many  of  his  thoughts;  in  the  judicious  choice  of  sub- 
jects; in  liveliness  of  description;  and  in  exquisite 
pathos  and  tenderness  of  sentiment,  he  is  without 
a  rival .  The  Idylls,  or  Rural  Stories  of  Mademoi- 
selle Levesque,  a  poetess  of  France,  are  said  by 
some  critics  to  approach  that  excellence  which 
distinguishes  the  productions  of  Gesner.  To  these 
may  be  added  the  Eclogues  of  Fontenelle  and 
De  la  Motte,  of  the  same  country,  which  de- 
serve to  be  mentioned  with  honour  among  the  pas- 
toral writings  of  the  age. 


Poetry.  205 

The  late  pastoral  poets  of  Great-Britain  are  nu- 
merous; but  of  these  few  are  worthy  of  being  dis- 
tinguished. Among  such  as  deserve  to  be  men- 
tioned with  particular  honour,  Dr.  Beattie  and 
Mr.  Southey  stand  in  the  first  rank.  The  Her- 
mit  of  the  former,  which  belongs  to  this  class  ra- 
ther than  any  other,  in  ease,  in  solemn  musical 
expression,  in  elevation  of  sentiment,  and  in  pa- 
thetic touches,  is  almost  unrivalled,  and  would 
be  sufficient  alone  to  establish  the  author's  immor- 
tality as  a  poet.  And  the  Old  Mansion  House,  the 
Ruined  Cottage,  and  the  Botany-Bay  Eclogues  of 
the  latter,  display  the  fine  imagination,  the  grace- 
ful simplicity,  and  the  general  poetic  excellence, 
for  which  the  author  is  remarkable. 

In  pastoral  song  and  ballad,  the  poets  of  the  last 
age  incontestibly  excelled  those  of  all  preceding 
centuries.  In  this  class  of  poetic  compositions 
Great-Britain  has  been  particularly  fruitful;  and 
few  names  deserve  to  be  mentioned  with  so  much 
honour  as  that  of  Robert  Burns,  who  was  no- 
ticed in  a  former  section.  In  the  happy  union  of 
ease,  simplicity,  humour,  pathos,  and  energy,  he 
has  had  few  equals  in  any  age. 

LYRIC  POETRY. 

The  last  age  produced  some  specimens  of  lyric 
poetry  which  deserve  the  highest  praise.  It  has 
been  asserted,  indeed,  that  in  this  species  of  com- 
position modern  poets  are  universally  and  indis- 
putably inferior  to  the  ancient;  but  this  assertion 
is  made  too  hastily,  and  without  sufficient  qualifi- 
cation. Some  of  the  odes  of  Collins  and  of  Gray 
will  bear  an  honourable  comparison  with  the  best 
productions  of  this  kind  of  any  age.  Besides 
these,  the  lyric  compositions  of  Watts,  Thom- 
son, Mason,  Warton,Co\vper,  Mrs.  Bareauld, 


Q06  Poetry. 

and  several  other  English  poets,  will  long  do  ho- 
nour to  the  literature  of  their  country. 

During  the  same  period,  much  lyric  poetry,  of 
a  respectable  character,  was  produced  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe.  In  the  French  language,  the 
odes  of  J.  B.  Rousseau,  and  of  Gressett,  are  con- 
sidered by  the  critics  of  that  country  as  among  the 
most  finished  productions  of  their  kind.  To  the 
odes  of  Rousseau  this  character  is  especially  ap- 
plicable. In  the  Italian  language,  the  odes  of  Me- 
tastasio;  in  the  German,  those  of  Klopstock, 
Weisse,  and  Wieland;  and  in  the  Swedish,  those 
of  Dahlin,  and  of  Gyllenborg,  are  all  admired 
among  those  who  understand  the  languages  in 
which  they  are  respectively  written.  But  it  is  be- 
lieved that' the  best  lyric  poetry  of  Great-Britain, 
during  this  period,  exceeds  that  of  any  other  coun- 
try in  Europe,  and  of  course  in  the  literary  world. 

Under  the  head  of  lyric  poetry,  may  be  placed 
the  species  of  composition  called  the  Sonnet,  with 
many  excellent  models  of  which  the  eighteenth 
century  has  remarkably  abounded.  This  kind  of 
poetry  is  of  Italian  origin.  Dante,  though  not  the 
inventor,  was  the  first  who  succeeded  in  the  compo- 
sition of  it.  The  first  successful  attempts  to  present 
the  Sonnet  in  our  language,  were  made  by  Drum- 
mond,  and  afterwards  by  Milton.  The  former 
excelled  in  delicacy;  the  specimens  furnished  by 
the  latter  were  chiefly  distinguished  by  strength  of 
expression,  and  sublimity  of  thought;  but  were 
by  no  means  remarkable  for  smoothness,  harmony, 
or  elegance.  In  these  respects,  several  writers  of 
Sonnets,  since  the  day  of  that  immortal  bard, 
though  greatly  inferior  in  genius,  have  much  ex- 
celled him;  and,  of  course,  have  produced  com- 
positions of  this  kind  before  unequalled  in  English 
literature.  Among  those  who  have  most  distin- 
guished themselves  in  this  department  of  poetry,  are 


Poetry.  207 

Miss  Charlotte  Smith,  Mr.  Bowles,  and  Miss 
Seward.  "  In  sweetness  and  harmony  of  versifi- 
cation ;  in  unaffected  elegance  of  style  ;  and  in 
that  pleasing  melancholy  which  irresistably  steals 
upon  and  captivates  the  heart,  they  have  excelled 
all  other  writers  of  the  Sonnet,  and  have  shown 
how  erroneous  are  the  opinions  of  those  who  deem 
this  species  of  composition  beneath  the  attention 
of  genius. "c 

Finally,  under  the  general  denomination  of 
lyric  poetry  fall  those  various  species  of  poetic 
compositions  called  Songs,  Ballads,  &x.  of  which 
the  last  age  has  been  eminently  fruitful.  Never 
was  there  a  period  before  in  which  the  number  and 
the  poetic  merit  of  these  were  so  great  as  during 
that  which  is  under  review.  In  this  department 
of  poetry  the  Scotch  and  English  have  excelled 
not  only  their  contemporaries,  but  all  preceding 
writers.  But  this  class  of  poets  is  so  numerous, 
and  so  familiarly  known,  that  no  attempt  will  be 
made  to  exhibit  even  a  selection  of  the  best. 

elegiac  poetry. 

That  part  of  the  poetry  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury which  falls  under  this  head  is  worthy  of  par- 
ticular notice.  It  may  be  pronounced  greatly 
superior  to  all  the  productions  of  a  similar  kind 
which  belong  to  any  preceding  age.  In  this  section 
several  of  the  productions  of  Pope  may  be,  with 
propriety,  arranged,  and  must  have  assigned  to  them 
a  high  place.  The  elegies  of  Hammond,  though 
scarcely  possessing  first-rate  excellence,  have  been 
also  celebrated.  But  the  writer  who  confessedly 
stands  in  the  first  rank  of  elegiac  poets  is  Gray. 
His  Elegy  in  a  Country  Church  Yard  will  be  read 

e  Drake's  Literary  Hours,  vol.  i.  p.  JI3» 


208  Poetry. 

with  admiration  and  delight,  as  possessing  beauties 
of  the  most  rich  and  exquisite  kind,  as  long  as  taste 
and  sensibility  shall  exist/  Another  distinguished 
name,  entitled  to  an  honourable  place  in  this  list,  is 
that  of  Shenstone,  who  produced  at  least  one 
Elegy  which  will  ever  command  admiration.  Nor 
would  it  be  just  to  pass  in  silence  the  name  of  Miss 
Seward,  who,  in  this  department  of  poetry,  has 
displayed  powers  in  the  pathetic,  the  elegant,  and 
the  beautiful,  which  bid  fair  long  to  render  her 
character  conspicuous  in  the  annals  of  English 
literature. 

The  best  elegiac  poetry  of  the  last  age  is  dis-* 
tinguished  above  that  of  all  preceding  periods,  by 
the  union  of  a  number  of  qualities  which  never 
before  so  conspicuously  met  in  this  species  of  com- 
position. These  qualities  are  regularity,  correct- 
ness, pathos,  elevation  of  sentiment,  and  purity  of 

d  Thomas  Gray  was  born  in  London  in  1716,  and  died  in  1771.  His 
character,  as  drawn  by  a  friend,  is  as  follows :  "  Perhaps  he  was  the  most 
learned  man  in  Europe.  He  was  equally  acquainted  with  the  elegant 
and  the  profound  parts  of  science  ;  and  that  not  superficially,  but  thoroughly. 
He  knew  every  branch  of  history,  both  natural  and  civil;  had  read  all  the 
original  historians  of  England,  France,  and  Italy ;  and  was  a  great  antiqua- 
rian. Criticism,  metaphysics,  morals,  politics,  made  a  principal  part  of 
his  study.  Voyages  and  travels  of  all  sorts  were  his  favourite  amusements  ; 
and  he  had  a  fine  taste  in  painting,  prints,  architecture,  and  gardening. 
With  such  a  fund  of  knowledge,  his  conversation  must  have  been  equally 
instructing  and  entertaining ;  but  he  was  also  a  good  man,  a  man  of  vir- 
tue and  humanity."  Dr.  Johnson,  in  his  Lives  of  the  Poets,  is  generally 
supposed  not  to  have  done  justice  to  this  celebrated  writer.  From  his 
Elegy  in  the  Church  Yard,  indeed,  that  great  Critic  could  not  withhold  the 
warmest  praise.  "  In  the  character  of  this  Elegy"  says  he,  "  I  rejoice  to 
concur  with  the  common  reader.  It  abounds  with  images  which  find  a 
mirror  in  every  mind,  and  with  sentiments  to  which  every  bosom  returns 
an  echo.  Had  Gray  written  often  thus,  it  had  been  vain  to  blame,  and 
useless  to  praise  him."  After  all,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  that  he  wrote 
but  little ;  that  only  a  part  of  that  little  is  in  the  style  of  exquisite  excel- 
lence; and  that  his  Elegy  is  so  greatly  superior  to  every  other  production 
of  his  pen,  as  to  excite  a  suspicion  that  it  was  the  result  of  unwearied  polish 
and  elaboration,  rather  than  the  spontaneous  effusion  of  a  mighty  genius. 
If  this  view  of  the  subject  be  admissible,  though  Gray  will  still  hold  a 
place  in  the  first  rank  of  lyric  and  elegiac  poets ;  yet  some  of  the  praise 
which  has  been  bestowed  on  his  genius  will  be  pronounced  excessive;  and 
the  judgment  of  Da-.  Johnjon  less  liable  to  exception  than  is  commonly 
supposcd. 


.  Poetry.  209 

moral  character.  Never  before  were  these  charac- 
ters so  frequently  assembled,  so  harmoniously 
united,  or  so  forcibly  exhibited,  as  in  some  of  the 
elegiac  productions  of  the  century  under  review. 

DRAMA. 

The  Dramatic  Poetry  of  the  eighteenth  century 
bears,  in  several  respects,  a  distinguished  charac- 
ter/ An  obvious  circumstance  which  deserves  to 
be  noted,  is  the  great  and  unprecedented  number  of 
dramatic  productions  which  have  appeared  during 
this  period.  In  almost  every  civilized  and  literary 
nation  the  press  has  teemed  with  the  efforts  of  the 
tragic  and  comic  muse.  Perhaps  in  no  department 
of  literature,  if  we  except  Novels,  has  the  taste  of 
the  age  for  multiplying  books  been  more  remark- 
ably displayed  than  in  that  which  is  under  consi- 
deration. In  proportion  as  theatrical  amusements 
have  been  multiplied  and  extended,  the  love  of 
fame,  the  hope  of  profit,  or  a  fondness  for  the  em- 
ployment, have  prompted  many  to  appear  as  can- 
didates for  supplying  the  demands  of  the  public. 
Of  the  moral  effect  of  this  increase  in  the  taste 
and  demand  for  theatrical  representations  some 
notice  will  be  taken  hereafter. 

The  specimens  of  English  Tragedy  which  be- 
long to  the  period  under  review,  though  numer- 
ous, are  yet  few  of  them  entitled  to  the  praise  of 
first-rate  excellence.  After  the  Mourning  Bride, 
of  Congreve,  which  properly  belongs  to  the  pre- 
ceding age,  the  Fair  Penitent,  and  the  Jane  Shore \ 
of  Ro\ve,  with  respect  to  time,  hold  the  first  place. 
These,  though  of  different  relative  merit,  yet,  both 

e  The  author  is  sensible  that  many  dramatic  productions  cannot  with 
propriety  be  denominated  poetic  ;   but  to  avoid  multiplying  chapters  he  has 
thought  proper  to  throw  under  one  head  all  those  work*,  whether  poetic 
•r  not,  which  belong  to  the  dramatic  clasi. 
VOL.   II.  zV, 


210  Poetry. 

on  account  of  their  plot  and  language,  have  de- 
servedly continued  to  be  favourites  to  the  present 
day/  If  Rowe  paint  the  passions  with  less  force 
and  conformity  to  nature  than  Shakspeare  and 
Otway,  he  is  free  from  the  barbarisms  of  the 
former,  and  the  licentiousness  of  the  latter.  The 
Cato,  of  Addison,  is  generally  known ;  and  the 
public  seem  now  to  be  agreed  in  the  opinion,  that, 
notwithstanding  all  the  loftiness  of  sentiment,  and 
beauty  of  diction  with  which  it  abounds,  as  a  Tra- 
gedy, it  is  too  "  regularly  dull,"  and  unnaturally 
stiff,  for  scenic  representation.  The  Revenge,  by 
Dr.  Young,  displays  no  small  share  of  that  sub- 
limity and  fire  which  the  illustrious  author  so  re- 
markably possessed.  Of  his  several  Tragedies, 
this  only  keeps  possession  of  the  stage.  The  Gre- 
cian Daughter,  and  the  Gamester,  of  Moore, 
will  long  remain  very  honourable  monuments 
of  the  dramatic  powers  of  their  author.  The 
Caractacus,  of  Mason,  would  have  done  credit 
to  the  most  favourable  periods  of  ancient  lite- 
rature. Douglass,  by  Mr.  Home,  for  several  rea- 
sons, attracted  an  unusual  degree  of  public  atten- 
tion, when  it  first  appeared;  and  has  ever  since 
maintained  a  high  character/  Among  the  Tra- 
gedies of  Thomson,  Tancred  and  Sigismnnda 
alone  merits  distinction.      This,  with  regard  to 


/  In  these  and  the  following  remarks  on  dramatic  poetry,  the  author 
takes  for  granted  that  no  reader  will  consider  him  as  expressing  an  opi- 
nion favourable  to  theatrical  amusements.  He  is  persuaded  that  the  gene- 
ral character  and  tendency  of  such  amusements  are  highly  immoral ;  but 
in  this  place,  and  always  when  he  employs  favourable  expressions  concern- 
ing certain  dramas,  he  begs  to  be  understood  as  merely  delivering  opinions 
of  a  literary  kind. 

g  Mr.  Home  was  a  clergyman  of  the  church  of  Scotland.  The  cir- 
cumstance of  a  person  of  his  profession  giving  encouragement  to  the  stage, 
by  writing  for  it,  gave  great  and  just  offence,  and  made  his  tragedy  an  ob- 
ject of  much  more  attention  and  interest  than  it  would  otherwise  have 
been.  He  wrote  several  tragedies  afterwards;  but  they  were  all  unsuc- 
cessful. It  seemed  as  if  his  genius  had  been  absorbed  by  his  first  produc- 
tion. 


Poetry.  211 

plot,  sentiment,  and  style,  is  entitled  to  high  re- 
spect; but,  perhaps,  scarcely  to  that  degree  which 
might  have  been  expected  from  the  great  powers 
displayed  in  the  Seasons.  The  Irene,  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
though  it  "furnishes  a  rich  store  of  noble  sentiments, 
fine  imagery,  and  beautiful  language,  is  deficient 
in  plan,  pathos,  and  general  impression."  The 
Mysterious  Mother,  of  Horace  Walpole,  though 
the  subject  is  shocking,  displays  great  talentsa 
especially  in  depicting  the  terrible.  Miss  Han- 
nah More's  Percy  is  a  popular  tragic  produc- 
tion/ Her  Sacred  Dramas,  though  a  monument 
of  her  piety,  and  her  desire  to  promote  youthful 
improvement,  will  scarcely  be  thought  to  deserve, 
high  praise  as  works  of  genius.  To  these  may  be 
added  the  Zenobia,  the  Grecian  Daughter,  and 
the  Alzuma,  of  Mr.  Murphy,  which  are  consi- 
dered as  respectable  in  their  dramatic  character, 
and  pure  in  their  moral  tendency,  but  with  a  re- 
markable prevalence  of  terror  in  their  impression. 

In  the  history  of  English  Comedy,  the  eighteenth 
century  forms  an  important  era.  Indeed,  the  En- 
glish language  scarcely  furnished  an  instance  of 
pure  or  unmixed  comedy  prior  to  the  commence- 
ment of  this  period.  The  comic  productions  of 
Shakspeare  are  well  known  not  to  have  been  of 
this  kind;  and  those  of  Dryden  and  Southern 
were  generally  interspersed  with  too  much  of  the 
tragic  to  have  a  place  assigned  them  in  the  de- 
partment of  ridicule  alone.  In  the  last  age  a  re- 
markable revolution  has  taken  place  in  this  respect. 
Specimens  of  unmixed  comedy  have  become  fre- 
quent, or  rather  the  most  fashionable  kind  of  dra- 
matic composition;  and  in  a  few  instances  the 
wit  and  humour  of  these  productions   are  found 

b  Percy  is  said  to  be  a  "  bad  alteration  from  Gabrielle  da  Fcrgy,  by  Do 
Billoy,  a  celebrated  French  Tragedian."  Notwithstanding  this  charge, 
however,  it  has  maintained  a  high,  degree  of  popularity. 


212  Poetry. 

more  correct  and  refined,  and  their  whole  struc- 
ture more  elegant  than  those  of  any  preceding  age. 
The  English  Comedies  which  have  attracted 
attention,  and  to  which  great  excellence  is  at- 
tributed, are  numerous.  The  Careless  Husband,  ol 
Cibber,  first  performed  in  1704,  is  generally  ranked 
among  the  most  respectable  of  this  class,  though 
it  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  perfectly  pure  in  its 
moral  tendency.  The  Recruiting  Officer,  and  the 
Beaux  Stratagem,  by  Farquhar,  though  liable  to 
still  greater  blame,  for  the  same  kind  of  fault,  have 
long  been  popular  plays.  The  Conscious  Lovers 3 
of  Sir  Richard  Steele,  for  purity  and  tenderness 
of  sentiment,  and  chasteness  of  language,  has 
generally  received  warm  commendation.  The 
Suspicious  Husband,  by  Hoadly,  also  ranks  high 
in  this  list.  The  Jealous  Wife,  and  the  Clandes- 
tine Marriage,  by  Colman,  have  had  a  degree  of 
popularity  much  beyond  ordinary  comic  produc- 
tions. The  Good-natured  Man,  and  She  Stoops  to 
Conquer,  by  Goldsmith,  have  generally  a  place 
assigned  them  among  the  superior  works  of  this 
class.  The  School  for  Scandal,  by  Mr.  Sheridan., 
is  pronounced,  in  a  literary  view,  the  best  comedy 
of  the  age;  but  when  measured  by  a  correct  moral 
standard,  considerable  deduction  must  be  made 
from  its  merit.  The  West  Indian,  and  the  Wheel 
of  Fortune,  by  Mr.  Cumberland,  have  been  much 
applauded  by  judges  of  dramatic  excellence.  The 
comic  productions  of  Garrick,  though  certainly 
not  deserving  of  a  place  in  the  highest  rank,  are 
yet  lively  and  pleasing,  and  in  general  free  from 
the  charge  of  immoral  tendency.  The  Heiress, 
of  General  Burgoyne,  for  taste  and  wit,  stands 
high  in  the  opinion  of  connoisseurs.  The  comedies 
of  Mr.  Holcroft  are  entitled  to  considerable 
praise,  as  efforts  of  genius ;  but  the  errors  of  the 
author's  moral   and    philosophical  principles  are 


Poetry.  215 

too  often  brought  into  view.     In  strong  and  popu- 
lar exhibitions  of  the  vis  co?nica,  Mr.  Macklin 
displayed  unusual  talents.     For  the  construction  of 
musical  Afterpieces,  of  delicate   and  sentimental 
humour,    Mr.  Dibdin  rendered  himself  famous. 
In  Farce,  few  writers  of  the  age  discovered  more 
broad  humour   than  Foote;    but  his  humour  is 
generally  coarse,  frequently  licentious,  and  in  some 
instances  so  grossly  impious  and  immoral,  as  to 
disgrace  the  author  in  the  estimation  of  every  vir- 
tuous mind.     For  taste  and  wit  the  dramatic  pro- 
ductions of  Mrs.  Cowley  and  Mrs.  Inchbald, 
deserve  to  be  honourably  mentioned.     In  elegant 
comedy,  Miss  Lee  has  displayed  very  respectable 
powers.     But  it  would  far  exceed  our  limits  to 
give  a  full  catalogue  of  those  who  have  sought  and 
received  high  dramatic  honours  in  the  course  of 
the  age  under  consideration. 

The  various  dramatic  works  of  O'Keefe,  Kelly, 
Morton,  Reynolds,  and  several  others,  are  well 
known  to  those  who  have  a  tolerable  acquaintance 
with  the  English  drama,  and  have  attained  various 
degrees  of  respect  in  the  public  estimation. 

That  kind  of  dramatic  composition  which  is  set  to 
music,  and  is  denominated  an  Opera,  is  well  known 
to  be  a  modem  invention.  This  species  of  theatrical 
exhibition  was  first  made  in  Italy,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century;  but  it  was 
never  introduced  into  England  till  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth.  And  in  order  to  avoid  the  ab- 
surdity of  dramas,  in  an  unknown  tongue  (for  the 
first  operas  performed  in  Britain  were  in  the  Italian 
language),  Mr.  Addison  wrote  and  published  his 
Rosamond.  Since  that  time  operas  have  become 
more  popular  in  almost  every  part  of  Europe,  and 
generally  find  a  place  where  the  theatre  is  sup- 
ported. The  operas  of  Fontenelle,  of  Metas- 
tASio3  and  of  other  celebrated  dramatic  writers, 


214  Poetry. 

are  well  known.  Bat  they  are,  after  all,  a  kind 
of  composition  too  unnatural  to  hold  a  very  high 
place  in  the  list  of  dramatic  amusements.  The 
first  serious  operas  were  brought  on  the  English 
stage  by  Dr.  Arne,  who  translated  some  of  the 
operas  of  Metastasio;  but  this  kind  of  theatrical 
exhibition  gained  little  ground.  The  first  musical 
piece  which  commanded  any  great  success  on  the 
English  stage  was  the  Beggars'  Opera,  of  Gay. 
Since  his  time  the  comic  opera  has  been  much 
more  popular  than  the  serious. 

It  would  be  a  culpable  omission  to  conclude  our 
remarks  on  this  department  of  British  poetry, 
without  taking  some  notice  of  the  unwearied  la- 
bours of  literary  men,  during  the  age  under  con- 
sideration, to  illustrate  the  writings  of  Shaks- 
peare,  the  great  Father  of  the  English  drama. 
For  some  time  after  the  publication  of  his  works, 
they  were,  from  the  defective  taste  and  negligence 
of  the  times,  greatly  corrupted  by  various  tran- 
scribers and  editors.  The  first  attempt  to  remove 
these  corruptions,  and  to  present  a  corrected 
edition  to  the  public,  was  made  by  Mr.  Rowe,  in 
1709,  with  considerable  success.  Some  years 
afterwards,  Mr.  Pope  made  his  countrymen  more 
fully  acquainted  than  they  had  ever  been  before 
with  the  corrupt  state  of  Shakspeare's  text,  and 
excited  high  expectations  that  a  more  complete 
reform  of  it  would  be  effected  by  his  labours. 
Neither  his  emendations,  nor  his  commentaries, 
however,  are  now  considered  of  much  value. 
Indeed  he  has  been  openly  charged  with  corrupt- 
ing, rather  than  purifying  or  elucidating  his  author. 
His  edition  was  published  in  1725.  Pope  was 
followed,  in  this  field  for  the  display  of  literary 
taste  and  enterprise,  by  Mr.  Tiieosald,  who,  in 
1733,  gave  a  new  edition;  in  preparing  which 
for  the  press  he  collated  many  copies,  and  cor- 


Poetry.  215 

rected  many  errors;  but  defective  both  in  taste 
and  learning,  he  was  still  far  from  having  done 
justice  to  his  undertaking.  The  next  in  this  list 
of  critical  editors  is  Sir  Thomas  Hanmer,  whose 
edition  appeared  in  1744,  He  made  many  emen- 
dations with  great  judgment,  and  in  a  manner 
which  indicated  both  discernment  and  erudition ; 
but  in  others  he  discovered  much  caprice,  and 
adopted  a  large  number  of  the  censurable  innova- 
tions of  Pope.  In  1747,  Dr.  Warburton  made 
trial  of  his  great  critical  acumen,  and  his  profound 
erudition,  on  the  works  of  the  same  illustrious  dra- 
matist; but  though  he  displayed  much  sagacity  and 
learning,  his  work  was  rather  considered  as  an  exhi- 
bition of  himself,  than  an  elucidation  of  his  author. 
In  1765  appeared  the  edition  of  Dr.  Johnson. 
This  great  critic  threw  more  light  on  Shaks-^ 
peare  than  all  who  had  gone  before  him*  His 
preface  to  the  edition,  his  numerous  emendations, 
and  his  notes  on  obscure  passages,  discover  a 
soundness  of  judgment*  a  profundity  of  critical 
skill,  and  an  elegance  of  taste,  which  will  do  him 
lasting  honour.  The  editorial  labours  of  Mr.  Ma- 
lone  close  the  list.  His  edition  appeared  in  1789. 
Having  devoted  much  time  and  pains  to  the  work, 
and  having  the  advantage  of  all  that  had  been 
done  by  his  predecessors,  he  may  be  considered, 
on  the  whole,  the  most  complete  commentator  on 
Shakspeare  that  has  hitherto  appeared. 

The  dramatic  productions  of  France,  during  the 
period  under  consideration,  were  numerous;  and 
some  of  them  attained,  and  still  hold  a  high  repu- 
tation/ The  first  class  of  French  Tragedies  be- 
longing to  this  age  may  be  slightly  noticed.  In 
this  list  the  first  place  is  due  to  the  several  tragic 
productions  of  Voltaire.     The  Zaire,  the  Alzire, 

i  See  La  Harpe's  Lectures^  and  his  Literary  Corresftridencc. 


216  Poetry. 

the  Merope,  and  the  Orphan  of  China,  by  him,  are 
all  possessed  of  distinguished  excellence.  It  is 
peculiarly  worthy  of  remark,  that  notwithstand- 
ing that  celebrated  infidel,  in  almost  every  page 
of  his  prose  writings,  discloses  his  hatred  of  reli- 
gion, and  the  profligacy  of  his  principles,  nothing 
can  be  more  pure,  in  a  moral  and  religious 
view,  than  his  tragedies.  Next  to  those  of  Vol- 
taire are  the  tragic  compositions  of  the  elder 
Crebillon,  which  are  universally  allowed  to  dis- 
play great  powers,  and  especially  to  excel  in 
force  of  character.  His  Bhadamislus  and  Atrceus 
are  always  quoted  as  his  best  performances.  The 
tragedies  of  La  Motte  have  also  a  place  assigned 
them  among  the  great  dramatic  productions  of 
France,  during  the  last  age.  Of  his  several  works; 
the  Lies  de  Castro  holds  the  highest  rank.  The 
historical  and  patriotic  tragedies  of  Dubelloy  are 
much  celebrated  in  the  annals  of  French  literature. 
His  Siege  of  Calais  attained  the  greatest  degree 
of  celebrity;  and  afterwards  his  Titus  and  %eU 
mira  commanded  considerable  attention.  The 
tragedies  of  M.  Saurin  are  also  honourably  men- 
tioned among  the  critics  of  the  author's  own  coun- 
try. Of  these,  to  his  Spartacus  the  most  liberal 
praise  has  been  given.  M.  Diderot,  among  the 
numerous  productions  of  his  pen,  gave  to  the 
public  several  tragedies;  but  they  are,  like  many 
of  his  other  writings,  more  conspicuous  monu- 
ments of  his  moral  depravity  than  of  his  genius 
or  taste. 

The  French  Comedies  which  have  attracted  at- 
tention are  much  more  numerous.  The  comic 
production  of  Le  Sage  rank  high  in  this  list.  His 
Tuscaret  gained  great  and  general  popularity. 
The  Le  Glorieiix,  and  Le  Philosophe  Marie,  of 
Desto itches,  were  still  more  eminently  popular. 
The  former,  indeed.,  has  been  pronounced  one  of 


Poetry.  fil7 

the  best  comedies  that  the  age  produced.  Piron 
was  also  a  comic  writer  of  great  celebrity  among 
his  countrymen,  and  even  throughout  Europe.  His 
La  Metromanie  is  an  effort  of  high  dramatic 
genius ;  but  is  liable  to  exception  with  respect  to 
its  moral  tendency.  The  younger  Crebillon  dis- 
plays, in  his  comedies,  a  large  portion  of  wit  and 
humour,  but  they  are  too  much  of  the  licentious 
kind.  M.  Saurin  is  also  distinguished  as  a  writer 
of  French  Comedy.  His  VAnglomane  is  considered 
as  the  best  production  of  his  pen,  in  this  depart- 
ment of  dramatic  writing.  The  comedies  of  M. 
Gressett  sustain  a  still  higher  character.  The 
Mechant,  by  him,  ranks  with  the  first  comic 
works  of  the  age.  M.  Boissy  has  displayed  con- 
siderable talents  as  a  writer  of  comedy.  L*  Homme 
du  Jour,  and  Les  dehors  Trompeurs,  hold  a  respect- 
able place  in  the  critic's  list.  M.  Beaumarchais 
is  also  entitled  to  notice  as  belonging  to  the  same 
class.  Though  little  can  be  said  in  favour  of  the 
moral  tendency  of  his  Barbier  de  Seville,  Marriage 
de  Figaro,  or  Mere  Coupable;  yet  they  discover 
so  much  wit  and  humour  as  to  command  much  of 
the  public  attention. 

To  France  is  ascribed  the  invention  of  a  new 
species  of  drama,  called  Comedie  Larmoyante,  or 
Crying  Comedy.  This  is  a  genus  between  tragedy 
and  comedy  of  the  pure  unmixed  kind;  and  also 
different  in  its  character  from  the  tragi-comedy  of 
Dryden  and  Southern.  It  offers  pictures  of 
temporary  domestic  distresses,  which  in  private  life 
too  frequently  occur,  and  which,  though  attended 
with  no  consequences  sufficiently  fatal  for  tragedy, 
are  too  serious  for  comic  representation.  The 
inventor  of  this  species  of  drama  was  M.  La 
Chaussee.  In  this  style  of  writing  he  has  had 
several  imitators.  The  domestic  and  sentimental 
comedies    of  M.  Dorat  are  considerably    cele- 

VOL.   IT.  :F 


218  Poetry. 

brated;  and  the  moral  dramas  of  Mouval  and 
BouiLLY  have  also  a  high  reputation. 

Besides  the  French  comic  writers  above  men- 
tioned, several  others  have  attained  distinction, 
though  in  an  inferior  degree.  Among  these,  Reg- 
nard,  La  Motte,  Marivaux,  Marmontel,  Se- 
daine,  and  Saint  Foix,  deserve  particular  notice. 
It  is  to  be  lamented  that  purity  of  moral  character 
cannot  be  generally  ascribed  to  their  productions. 

Though  the  best  English  comedies  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  are  far  superior  to  those  of  the 
same  language  which  were  produced  in  the  pre- 
ceding age,  we  cannot  consider  the  same  improve- 
ment as  belonging  to  modern  French  comedy. 
Moliere,  who  died  towards  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  in  the  combined  excellences  of 
wit,  humour,  plot,  and  character,  has  never  been 
equalled  by  any  of  his  successors.  It  may  be 
questioned,  indeed,  whether  he  was  ever  equalled, 
in  all  these  respects,  by  any  writer,  ancient  or 
modern.  His  plays  have  supplied  materials  for 
plunder  to  all  other  comic  writers  since  his  time. 

The  dramatic  works  of  Italy,  during  the  period 
6f  this  retrospect,  were  many  in  number,  and  some 
of  them  highly  valued  as  efforts  of  genius/  In 
Italian  Tragedy,  the  various  works  of  Martelli, 
which  appeared  early  in  the  century,  hold  an 
honourable  place.  His  Perselide,  Ifigenia,  and 
Alceste,  are  generally  enumerated  among  the  best 
productions  of  his  pen.  To  Martelli  is  ascribed 
the  honour  of  having  adopted  a  structure  of  poetry 
wThich  had  never  before  been  used  in  Italy.  The 
tragedies  of  Marchesi  have  also  a  high  character 
among  the  critics  of  that  country.  Those  under 
the  titles  of  Crispo  and  Polissena  have  particularly 
attained  general  celebrity.    The  Merope,  of  Maf- 

j  See  "Walker's  HittorUal  Memoir  on  Italian  Tragedy,    4to.   I799. 


Poetry.  219 

fei,  is  pronounced  by  some  the  best  tragedy  that 
was  ever  written.      It  is  certain  that  few  tragic 
productions  have  been  more  famed,  or  have  served 
more  frequently  as  models  to  subsequent  writers/ 
Granelli  and  Bettinelli  have  also  a  place  among 
the  distinguished  authors  in  this  species  of  com- 
position.    The  Sedecia,  Manasse,  and  Dione,  of 
the   former;    and    the   Gionata,    Demetrw,    and 
Serse,  of  the  latter,  are  considered  as  their  ablest 
productions.     Monti,  of  the  same  country,  has 
obtained    considerable    distinction   by    his   Man- 
fredi  and  Aristodemo.     To  these  names  may  be 
added   those   of  Cjesarotti    and  Alfieri,  who 
have  both  produced  tragedies  of  high  reputation  ; 
and  that  of  Metastasio,  whose  Operas  2nd  Sacred 
Dramas  have  been  long  and  advantageously  known 
to  the  public.      He    perfected  the  musical  and 
serious  drama  of  Italy,     Rejecting  marvellous  in- 
cidents, and  allegorical  personages,  his  productions 
became  more  conformed  to  nature  and  life  than 
those  of  his  predecessors;   and  the  music  of  his 
pieces  was  so  introduced  as  to  be  performed  by 
real  actors,  strongly  agitated  with  passion,  and,  of 
course,  giving  more   effect  to  their  performance, 
than  could  be  done  in  the  chorus  of  Greek  tragedy, 
which  was  usually    executed  by  calm  observers 
instead  of  those  who  participated  in  the  action  of 
the  scene. 

Of  the  Italian  writers  of  Comedy  the  author 
knows  too  little  to  attempt  any  distinct  account. 
Few,  if  any,  among  them  are  more  celebrated  than 
Goldoni,  the  most  voluminous  dramatic  writer 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  A  large  portion  of  the 
pieces  exhibited  on  the  Italian  stage  are  from  his 
pen.     His  comedies  are  so  numerous  that  it  would 

k  The  Merope,  of  Maffet,  is  said  to  have  been  the  model  of  Vol- 
taire's tragedy  of  that  name.  It  is  asserted,  also,  that  the  work  of 
Maffei  is  the  real  parent  of  Home's  Douglas, 


f20  Poetry. 

be  difficult  to  make  a  selection,  and  of  such  ac- 
knowledged merit  that  they  need  no  additional 


encomium/ 


The  dramatic  writings  of  Germany  first  began 
in  the  eighteenth  century  to  assume  a  respectable 
and  interesting  aspect.  Indeed,  till  within  the 
last  forty  years  scarcely  any  specimen  had  appeared 
in  this  department  of  composition,  which  could  be 
considered  as  doing  honour  to  German  genius,  or 
which  was  much  known  beyond  the  bounds  of 
that  empire.  But  within  this  period  some  writers 
of  high  reputation  have  appeared,  and  raised  the 
dramatic  character  of  their  country  to  great  emi- 
nence. 

Goethe  stands  among  the  most  celebrated  Ger- 
man dramatists.  His  Sisters,  his  Stella,  and  his 
Jphigenia  are  considered  as  very  honourable  monu- 
ments of  genius.  The  tragedies  of  Lessing  have 
a  high  character  among  his  countrymen,  particu- 
larly his  Emilia  Galotti,  Philotas,  and  Sarah 
Sajnpson.  The  tragic  productions  of  Babo  are  also 
much  distinguished.  The  most  remarkable  of 
these  are  Otto  of  Wittlesbach,  Dagobert,  and  Con- 
science.  But,  perhaps,  no  tragic  writer  of  Ger- 
many has  gained  a  reputation  more  extensive  and 
commanding  than  Schiller,  whose  Robbers  and 
Don  Carlos  evince  powerful  talents,  and  have 
gained  unusual  popularity.  The  various  dramatic 
works  of  Schroeder,  Von  Reitzenstein,  and 
Iffland,  have  also  attracted  much  attention,  and 
received  general  applause.  The  last  in  particular 
is  one  of  the  most  liberal  contributors  to  the  drama 


/  Charles  Goldoni  was  born  at  Venice,  in  1707,  and  died  at  Paris 
in  1792.  He  is  said  to  have  been  equal  to  the  greatest  comic  poets  of 
modern  times,  in  dramatic  talents,  and  superior  to  them  all  in  the  fertility 
of  his  genius.  His  works  were  printed  at  Leghorn,  in  1791,  in  31  volumes 
gvo.  He  has  been  generally  called  the  Moliere  of  Italy  ;  and  Vol- 
taire, in  one  of  his  letters  to  the  Marquis  Albercati,  styles  kim  "  the 
painter  of  Nature." 


Poetry.  221 

of  modern  times.  Towards  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury no  dramatic  writer  in  the  German  language 
was  so  generally  popular  as  Kotzebue,  whobc 
principal  works  are  so  generally  known,  that  an 
attempt  to  enumerate  them,  or  draw  their  charac- 
ter, is  altogether  unnecessary/" 

The  dramatic  writers  of  the  rest  of  Europe,  dur- 
ing the  age  under  consideration,  were  few,  and  oi 
these  few  only  a  small  portion  gained  any  consi- 
derable celebrity.  With  the  dramatists  of  Spain 
and  Portugal  the  author  has  no  acquaintance.  In 
Sweden,  the  dramatic  works  of  Dahlin,  Gyllen- 
borg  and  Kellgren;  in  Denmark,  those  of  Baron 
Holberg  f  and  in  Russia,  those  of  Somorokof  are 
among  the  most  conspicuous  and  esteemed. 

There  are  several  characteristic  features  which 
belong  to  the  dramatic  compositions  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  in  which  they  differ  from  those  oi" 
any  preceding  age.     It  may  be  proper  to  take 

'*»  Several  of  the  dramas  of  Kotzebue,  as  well  as  those  of  Schiller, 
and  some  other  German  writers,  have  been  the  subject  of  much  criticism 
with  respect  to  their  moral  tendency.  It  is  impossible,  in  this  place,  to  en- 
ter into  a  discussion  of  the  merits  of  this  inquiry.  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  every  sober  and  reflecting  mind  will  perceive  much  to  censure 
on  this  ground,  particularly  in  the  writings  of  the  two  popular  dramatists 
above  mentioned.  It  is  not  objected  to  these  writers  that  their  characters  are, 
in  general,  unnaturally  drawn,  but  that  such  characters  ought  never  to  have 
been  exhibited  at  all;  not  that  their  incidents  are  impossible  or  incredible, 
but  that  such  incidents,  whether  in  fiction  or  in  real  life,  have  always  been 
powerful  means  of  corrupting  the  principles,  and  undermining  the  virtue 
of  those  by  whom  they  were  frequently  contemplated. 

n  Baron  Holberg  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  characters  of  the 
age.  He  was  born  in  Norway,  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury ;  was  the  son  of  a  private  sentinel,  and  learned  to  read  without  a  mas- 
ter. Being  deprived  of  his  father  at  nine  years  of  age,  he  persisted  in  pur- 
suing his  studies,  travelled  from  school  to  school,  and  begged  his  learning 
and  his  bread.  Early  in  life  he  made  the  tour  of  Europe  on  foot,  and 
went  over  to  England,  where  he  resided  two  years  at  the  University  of 
Oxford.  Furnished  with  a  large  portion  of  the  learning  of  Europe,  he,  at 
length,  settled  at  Copenhagen,  where  his  numerous  writings  gained  him 
much  public  notice,  and  liberal  governmental  favours.  He  composed 
eighteen  comedies.  Those  in  his  own  language  are  said  to  excel ;  and  those 
which  have  been  translated  into    French  are  represented  as  having  great 

merit.  He  died  about  the  year  1754.  Goldsmith's  Inquiry  into  the  pre- 
sent State  of  Polite  Learning, 


222  Poetry. 

some  notice  of  a  few  of  these  features  before  bring- 
ing this  section  to  a  close. 

One  circumstance  in  which  modern  dramas  dif- 
fer from  those  of  former  times,  is,  that  they  are 
more  consistent  and  correct  in  the  structure  of  their 
fable.  If  they  do  not  surpass  or  equal  some  pre- 
ceding productions  of  this  class  in  genius,  theyr 
must  be  allowed  to  excel  in  taste  and  regularity 
of  plan.  Many  of  the  noblest  dramas  which  were 
given  to  the  world  before  the  eighteenth  century, 
violated  every  principle  of  probability  and  nature. 
They  departed  from  the  most  obvious  unities  of 
time,  place  and  action.  They  gave  to  one  country 
the  customs,  laws,  and  general  characters  of 
another;  and  thus,  amidst  splendid  excellences, 
abounded  with  manifest  absurdities;  and  while 
they  gratified  the  taste,  also  put  to  a  severe  test  the 
patience  of  the  critic.  With  the  most  of  these 
faults,  even  the  immortal  Shakspeare  is  charge- 
able. The  best  dramatists  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury may  be  said,  in  general,  to  adhere  more  closely 
to  probability  and  nature  ;  to  employ  a  fable  more 
correct  and  consistent,  and  less  frequently  to  offend 
against  the  just  laws  of  fiction. 

A  further  circumstance  in  which  the  dramatic 
compositions  of  the  last  age  differ  from  those  of 
former  times,  is,  that  they  abound  more  in  plot 
and  action.  The  great  excellence  of  Shakspeare 
is  not  the  artful  contrivance  of  his  story,  nor  the 
variety  and  interest  of  his  incidents.  Were  his  plays 
tried  upon  ground  of  this  sort,  they  would  doubt- 
less be  found  inferior  to  many  of  smaller  name. 
But  his  distinguishing  merit  consists  in  his  know- 
ledge of  human  nature,  in  the  accurate  delineation 
of  his  characters,  in  forcible  and  natural  descrip- 
tions, and  in  the  weight  and  sublimity  both  of  his 
sentiments  and  his  language.  These,  notwithstand- 
ing numerous  defects  in  the  structure  of  his  dramas, 


Poetry.  225 

deeply  impress  the  mind,  dwell  upon  the  memory, 
and  secure  to  him  a  fame  unrivalled  and  immortal. 
Some  of  the  remarks  which  have  been  made  on 
Shakspeare,  particularly  that  which  relates  to  his 
frequent  deficiency  in  propriety  of  plot  and  incident, 
may  be  considered  as  applying  to  almost  all  the 
dramatic  writers  who  went  before  him.  Those  of 
the  last  age,  especially  the  first  class,  generally 
adopted  a  different  method.  A  more  artful  con- 
trivance of  fable  is  become  fashionable;  a  more 
extensive  and  intricate  plot  is  attempted;  more 
intrigue  and  action  are  carried  on;  our  curiosity  is 
more  awakened,  and  more  interesting  situations 
arise.  This  is  said,  by  good  critics,  to  be  an  im- 
provement. It  is  contended  that  it  furnishes  a 
more  favourable  field  for  the  display  of  passion,  and 
that  it  renders  the  entertainment  both  more  ani- 
mated, and  more  instructive.0 

It  may  also  be  mentioned  as  a  peculiarity  in  the 
dramatic  writings  of  the  eighteenth  century,  that 
they  are,  in  general,  more  decent,  and  more  moral 
in  their  tendency  than  those  of  the  age  immediately 
preceding.    The  comedies  of  Vanburgh,  so  justly 
admired    for   their    humour   and    native    ease    of 
dialogue,  are   extremely  licentious;    and,  in   the 
greater  part  of  Congreve's  dramas,    amidst  the 
brilliancy  of  wit,  and  force  of  language,  which  so 
remarkably  characterize  them,  there  are  passages 
which  put  virtue  and  decorum  entirely  out  of  coun- 
tenance.      In  several  of  the  comedies  of  Dry- 
den,  the  indecency  is  so  palpable  and  shocking, 
that  we  are  told,  even  in  the  dissolute  age  in  which 
he  lived,  they  were  prohibited  from  being  brought 
on  the  stage.      It  is  but  justice  to  say,  that  in  the 
course  of  the  last  age,  a  more  correct  taste  has 
arisen  and  prevailed.     It  is  true,  that  in  some  of 

•  Blair\>  Lectures. 


224  Poetry. 

the  most  popular  dramatic  productions  of  this 
period,  indelicate  scenes  sometimes  occur,  and  the 
general  moral  tendency  of  many  is  highly  censur- 
able. Bat  there  has  doubtless  been,  for  a  number 
of  years  past,  a  decency  in  the  public  taste,  and  in 
that  of  authors,  which  has  revolted  from  open  and 
gross  obscenity,  and,  of  course,  given  the  dramatic 
publications  of  the  day  a  great  superiority,  in  a 
moral  view,  over  those  which  were  fashionable  in 
the  time  of  Otway,  Congreve,  Vanburgh,  and 
Dryden.  Among  the  first  who  signalized  them- 
selves by  discarding  grossly  sensual  descriptions 
and  indecent  expressions  from  English  Tragedy, 
were  Mr.  Rowe  and  Mr.  Addison;  and  the  like 
service  was  rendered  to  Comedy,  by  Sir  Richard 
Steele,  and  some  who  immediately  succeeded  him. 
But,  though  the  dramatic  productions  of  the 
eighteenth  century  are,  in  general,  more  decent, 
and  much  less  offensive  in  the  exhibition  of  coarse 
licentiousness,  many  of  them  may  be  charged  with 
a  fault,  which,  though  less  obvious,  is,  perhaps, 
more  mischievous  in  its  tendency.  This  is  the 
artful  interweaving  of  false  principles  in  religion 
and  morals,  w^ith  the  whole  structure  of  their  fable 
and  sentiments.  Theatrical  exhibitions,  as  well 
as  Novels,  have  been  employed  to  insinuate  the 
poison  of  corrupt  opinions,  decorated  and  con- 
cealed, into  unsuspecting  minds.  A  splendid  hero 
is  made  to  inculcate  and  recommend  the  most 
hateful  principles;  and  an  ingeniously  contrived 
series  of  incidents  to  prepossess  the  mind  in  favour 
of  vice.  This,  considered  as  a  system  deliberately 
instituted  for  the  purpose  of  operating  on  public 
opinion,  it  is  believed,  is  peculiar  to  the  eighteenth 
century.  Both  Great- Britain  and  France  have 
given  birth  to  a  few  dramatic  productions  formed 
on  this  plan;  but  they  have  still  more  abounded 
in  Germany. 


Poetry.  225 

Another  peculiarity  of  modern  dramatic  pro- 
ductions, especially  of  the   Tragic  kind,  is,  that 
they  abound  more  in  love  than  the  ancient  models. 
In  the  ancient  tragedies  this  subject  was  rarely 
mentioned  or  alluded  to;   still  more  seldom  did 
any  of  them  turn  upon  it.     On  the  contrary,  love 
is  the    <c  main  hinge   of  modern    tragedy;"   and 
where  this  is  not  the  case,  the  introduction  of  the 
subject  is  considered  as  in  a  measure  indispensable. 
This  fact  may  be  accounted  for  in  several  ways. 
But,  perhaps,  the  most  probable  reasons  to  be  as- 
signed for  it  are  the  two  following.     The  progress 
or  civilization,  by  increasing   the  importance  of 
the  female  sex,  has  rendered  every  thing  which 
concerns  them,  and  particularly  the  passion  of  lovey 
with  its  consequences,  a  more  prominent  object  in 
society.     The  appearance  of  female  performers  on 
the  stage,  which  is  a  modern  improvement  in  the 
system  of  theatrical  exhibition,  probably  also  con- 
tributed to  produce  the  same  effect.    But  whatever 
may  have  been  the  cause,  the  fact  is  undeniably 
true.  The  unseasonable  introduction  of  love-scenes 
into  the  Cato  of  Addison,  is  well  known  to  di- 
minish the  consistency  and  dignity  of  that  cele- 
brated tragedy.     The  same  may  be  said  of  many 
other  popular  pieces.     Still  it  must  be  acknow- 
ledged, that  some  modern  dramas  of  great  excel- 
lence and  popularity  have  been  formed  without 
recurring  to  the  aid  of  this  powerful  passion.     Of 
this    Home's  Douglas,  and  Voltaire's  Merope, 
are  illustrious  examples.     But  such  instances  are 
certainly  rare. 


In  recounting  the  remarkable  poetical  publica- 
tions of  the  age,  it  would  be  improper  to  pass 
without  notice  two  singular  events,  which  have 
proved  the  sources  of  long-continued  and  violent 

VOL.  II.  *g 


226  Poetry. 

controversies  in  the  literary  world,  and  concerning 
which  much  diversity  of  opinion  exists  to  the  pre- 
sent day.  The  events  alluded  to  are  the  publi- 
cation of  the  poems  of  Chatter  ton,  an  extraor- 
dinary youth  of  Bristol,  in  South-Britain ;  and  the 
collection  and  exhibition,  in  a  regular  form,  of  the 
works  of  Ossian,  by  Mr.  James  Macpherson,  a 
man  who,  by  the  connection  of  his  name  with  these 
poems  alone,  has  attained  high  celebrity  in  the 
republic  of  letters. 

In  1760  Mr.  James  Macpherson,  of  North- 
Britain,  surprised  the  world  by  the  publication  of 
"  Fragments  of  Ancient  Poetry,  collected  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  translated  from  the 
Gaelic  or  Erse  language. "  In  1762  he  published 
"  Fingal,  an  Epic  Poem,  in  six  books,  together 
with  several  other  poems,  composed  by  Ossian,  the 
son  of  Fingal  ;"  and  again  in  1763  he  produced 
t€  Temora,  an  Ancient  Epic  Poem,  in  eight  books,'* 
with  several  additional  poems.  These  were  all 
ascribed  to  Ossian,  an  ancient  Scottish  bard/  and 
were  declared  by  the  publisher  to  have  been  col- 
lected, partly  from  old  manuscripts,  and  partly 
from  oral  tradition. 

Few  of  the  literary  controversies  of  the  age  ex- 
cited more  attention  than  that  which  immediately 
arose  respecting  the  authenticity  of  these  poems. 
By  many  learned  men  their  antiquity  ,was  readily 
admitted,  and  their  reception,  particularly  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  was  extremely  favourable. 
There  were  not  wanting  enthusiastic  admirers, 
who  even  placed  Ossian  on  the  same  shelf  with 
Homer  and  Virgil;  who  dwelt  with  rapturous 
praise  on  his  stupendous  merits;  and  made  the 
most  profuse  acknowledgments  to  the  man,  who 

p  This  poet  is  said,  by  those  who  believe  in  the  authenticity  of  the  poem* 
in  question,  to  have  flourished  about  the  end  of  the  second,  and  the  begin- 
sing  of  the  third  century. 


Poetry.  227 

was  supposed  to  have  brought  to  light  such  pre- 
cious remains  of  ancient  genius.7  On  the  con- 
trary, many  judges  equally  learned  and  acute  have 
denied  the  authenticity  of  the  poems  ascribed  to 
Ossian,  and  have  insisted  that  they  are  forgeries 
by  Mr.  Macpherson  himself/  Though  this  con- 
troversy is  far  from  being  terminated,  yet  the  best 
supported  and  most  probable  opinion  seems  to  be, 
that  the  poems  in  dispute  are  neither  wholly  the 
work  of  any  ancient  bard,  nor  entirely  forged  by 
Macpherson;  but  that  the  latter  really  made  large 
collections  of  ancient  Gaelic  poetry,  which  he 
modified  and  connected  in  his  own  way,  making 
additions  with  freedom  where  he  thought  proper, 
and  forming  an  apparently  regular  work  of  frag- 
ments which  were  never  before  united/ 

But  whatever  may  be  the  origin  of  the  poems 
which  have  passed  under  the  name  of  Ossian, 
they  doubtless  possess  merit  of  a  wonderful  kind. 
Amidst  the  obscurity  which  remarkably  per- 
vades them,  and  the  frequent,  and  even  disgust- 
ing recurrence  of  the  same  images,  such  as  the 
extended  heath  by  the  sea-shore;  the  mountain 
covered  with  mist;   the  torrent  rushing  through  a 

g  Among  the  distinguished  characters  who  have  contended  for  the  authen- 
ticity of  Ossian's  poems  may  be  mentioned  Dr.  Blair,  Lord  Kaims, 
Dr.  Henry,  Mr.  Whitaker,  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  a  large 
number. 

r  Dr.  Johnson  not  only  utterly  denied  the  authenticity  of  these  poems, 
but  also  maintained  that  they  had  no  merit.  His  opinion  on  the  former 
point  may,  with  some  qualification,  be  admitted;  but,  on  the  character  of 
the  work,  it  is  difficult  to  suppose  that  so  acute  and  profound  a  critic  could 
deliver  such  an  unfavourable  judgment,  without  improper  bias.  Though 
the  poetry  of  Ossian  has  been  extravagantly  estimated,  it  is  surely  worthy 
of  much  praise. 

s  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  by  no  means  credible  that  a  man  of  Mac- 
pherson's  mediocrity  of  talents  could  be  himself  the  author  of  the  poems 
which  bear  the  name  of  Ossian;  nor  can  it  be  supposed  that  any  one, 
however  great  his  powers,  could  completely  forge  compositions  bearing  so 
many  marks  of  antiquity,  both  in  -the  style,  the  sentiments,  and  the  histo- 
rical facts.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  no  less  difficult  to  believe  that  manu- 
script copies  of  these  poems,  in  the  form  in  which  we  now  see  them, 
should  have  existed  from  very  remote  antiquity. 


228  Poetry. 

solitary  valley;  the  scattered  oaks;  the  tombs  of 
the  warriors  overgrown  with  moss ;  and  the  melan- 
choly notes  resounding  from  the  hall  of  shells; 
still  these  celebrated  productions  abound  with 
rich  beauties;  with  energy  of  style,  force  of  de- 
scription, pathos,  tenderness,  and  in  some  instances 
with  sublimity  of  the  highest  order. 

In  1777  were  published  "  Poems  supposed  to 
have  been  written  at  Bristol,  by  Thomas  Rowley, 
and  others,  in  the  fifteenth  century."  These  poems 
were  first  brought  to  light  by  Thomas  Chatter- 
ton,  a  youth  of  humble  origin,  and  small  advant- 
ages of  education/  who  professed  to  be  only  the 
transcriber,  and  declared  that  they  were  written 
by  Rowley,  a  clergyman  of  Bristol,  more  than 
three  centuries  before  their  discovery  by  him.  These 
poems,  consisting  chiefly  of  dramatic,  lyric,  and 
pastoral  pieces,  were  pronounced  by  some  persons 

*  Thomas  Chatterton  was  born  in  the  city  of  Bristol,  November 
loth,  1752.  His  father  was  the  master  of  a  free  school  in  that  city,  and 
was  too  poor  to  give  his  son  any  of  the  advantages  of  a  liberal  education. 
His  acquirements,  therefore,  were  chiefly  made  up  of  such  an  acquaintance 
with  English  literature  as  a  mind  of  wonderful  force,  ardour,  and  ambition 
might  be  expected  to  gain  under  the  constant  pressure  of  poverty  and 
other  difficulties,  and  in  the  short  space  of  less  than  eighteen  years.  He 
began  to  write  poetry  about  the  eleventh  year  of  his  age  ;  and  was  but  a 
little  more  than  sixteen  when  he  produced  the  celebrated  poems  ascribed 
to  Rowley.  These  he  constantly  affirmed  he  had  copied  from  manuscripts 
found  in  an  old  church,  in  his  native  city  ;  but  he  never  could  be  persuaded 
to  produce  any  of  the  originals,  except  a  few  fragments,  which  he  asserted 
were  among  the  number,  the  largest  of  which  was  not  more  than  eight 
inches  long,  and  four  or  five  wide.  Though  the  more  general  and  proba- 
ble opinion  at  present  is,  that  this  remarkable  youth  was  the  real  author 
of  the  poems  which  have  passed  under  Rowley's  name;  yet  some  other 
works,  certainly  known  to  have  been  produced  by  him,  place  him  high  in 
the  ranks  of  genius.  Some  of  his  elegies  and  satires,  in  particular,  unques- 
tionably display  great  talents.  He  died  miserably  in  London,  August  25, 
1770.  His  death  is  accribed  to  poison,  which  he  had  swallowed  in  a  fit  of 
criminal  impatience  and  overwhelming  despair,  with  the  design  to  ter- 
minate his  sufferings.  He  is  said  to  have  imbibed  (in  the  two  or  three 
last  years  of  his  life)  principles  of  the  most  licentious  kind,  and  to  have 
"been  very  immoral  in  his  practice.  His  mind  was  aspiring  and  ambitious 
to  a  degree  almost  boundless;  and  not  meeting  with  that  success,  or 
those  rewards  of  his  talents  which  he  had  fondly  hoped,  he  took  refuge  in 
a  voluntary  death,  and  left  a  monument  of  unfortunate  degraded  genius,  of 
which  a  parallel  will  scarcely  be  again  contemplated. 


Poefiy.  229 

of  distinction  in  the  literary  world,  to  be  the  real 
works  of  Rowley,  to  whom  they  were  attributed; 
while  a  greater  number  of  equal  discernment  and 
acquaintance  with  the  subject,  decided  that  they 
were  forgeries,  and  that  Chatterton  himself  was 
the  author *  After  much  learned,  ingenious,  and 
interesting  discussion,  the  latter  opinion  seems  to 
be  considered  as,  on  the  whole,  the  better  supported, 
and  more  probable. 

The  poems  in  dispute  possess  a  very  extraor- 
dinary character.  The  subjects  are  generally  well 
chosen  and  interesting;  the  plot,  fable,  and  machi- 
nery, show  the  author  to  have  had  a  vigorous  and 
active  imagination ;  the  delineation  of  character, 
and  the  luxuriancy  of  description  with  which  they 
abound,  evince  an  happy  union  of  taste  and  genius; 
and,  different  from  all  the  poetical  productions 
which  were  written  at  the  time  when  these  are 
asserted  to  have  been  composed,  they  are,  in  general, 
conspicuous  for  harmony  and  elegance  of  versifi- 
cation." Indeed,  good  judges  have  pronounced, 
that  some  passages  are  inferior  in  none  of  the 
essentials  of  poetry  to  the  most  finished  works  of 
modern  times. 

If  the  poems  in  question  be  attributed  to  Row- 
ley, then  we  are  presented  with  the  singular  spec- 
tacle of  one  of  the  first  English  poets,  both  in  time 
and  merit,  sleeping  in  obscurity  for  more  than 
three  hundred  years,  and  being  at  last  robbed  of 
his  just  reputation  by  the  most  wonderful  literary 


v  Among  those  who  have  contended  that  these  poems  were  written  by 
Rowley,  Dr.  Milles,  Dean  of  Exeter,  and  Mr.  Bryant,  are  the  most 
conspicuous.  The  principal  writers  who  have  contended  that  Chatter- 
ton  is  the  real  author,  are  Walpole,  Tyrwhttt,  Gray,  Warton, 
Mason,  Croft,  and  Malone. 

u  This  harmony  and  elegance  of  versification  appear  under  all  the  dis- 
advantages of  the  antiquated  diction  adopted  by  the  author.  If  Chat- 
terton was  the  author  of  the  poems,  it  was  necessary  to  his  purpose  to 
employ  this  diction  ;  and  he  is  supposed  to  have  become  familiar  with  the 
language  of  the  fifteenth  century,  by  perusing  the  works  of  Chaucer. 


230  Poetry. 

juggler  that  ever  imposed  on  mankind.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  be  concluded  that  Chatterton  was 
the  real  author  of  the  poems  ascribed  to  Rowley, 
then  the  eighteenth  century  gave  birth  to  the  most 
astonishing  genius  that  ever  existed;  a  genius  sub- 
lime and  universal;  and  which,  considering  that 
all  his  efforts  were  made  before  he  reached  his 
eighteenth  year,  may  probably  be  pronounced 
with  safety  to  have  been  an  unique  in  the  history 
of  man.™ 


No  poet  of  reputation  had  appeared  in  America 
prior  to  the  eighteenth  century.  But  since  the 
commencement  of  this  period,  the  western  hemi- 
sphere, and  especially  that  part  of  the  continent 
denominated  the  United  States,  has  given  birth  to 
several  poets  of  respectable  character.  Among 
these  the  Rev.  Dr.  D  wight,  before  mentioned, 
holds  a  distinguished  place.  His  Conquest  of  Ca- 
naan, though  a  juvenile  performance,  and  labour- 
ing under  several  disadvantages,  contains  much 
excellent  versification/  and,  in  general  correctness, 
has  not  been  often  exceeded.  Greenfield-Hill,  a 
moral,  didactic,  and  descriptive  poem,  by  the 
same  author,  is  also  entitled  to  considerable  praise, 
for  exhibiting  pure  and  elevated  sentiment,  just 
principles,  and  beautiful  descriptions,  in  harmo- 
nious and  excellent  verse.  The  M'Fingal  of  Mr. 
Trumbull  was  mentioned  in  a  former  page,  as 
doing  high  honour  to  the  talents  of  its  author.  The 
Vision  of  Columbus,  and  other  poems,  by  Mr.  Bar- 


iv  Mr.  Whartox  speaks  of  Chatterton  as  "  a  prodigy  of  genius." 
Mr.  Ma  lone  believes  him  to  have  been  "  the  greatest  genius  that  Eng- 
land has  produced  since  the  days  of  Shakspeare."  Mr.  Croft  says, 
"  ho  such  human  being,  at  any  period  of  life,  has  ever  been  known,  or  pos- 
sibly can  be  known." 

x  This  is  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Darwin,  expressed  in  a  note  to  his  cele* 
brated  poem,    Tbs  Botanic  Garden. 


Poetry.  231 

low,  are  possessed  of  much  poetic  merit.  To 
these  may  be  added  the  various  productions  of 
Mr.  Humphreys,  Mrs.  Morton,  Dr.  Ladd,  Mr. 
Freneau,  and  several  others,  who,  though  far 
from  being  worthy  of  a  place  among  the  first  class 
of  poets,  have  yet  manifested  talents  honourable 
to  themselves  and  their  country,  and  have  been 
noticed  with  respect  by  foreign  as  well  as  domes- 
tic critics. 

From  the  statement  contained  in  the  last  para- 
graph, it  appears  that  New-England,  and  particu- 
larly the  state  of  Connecticut,  has  been  more  dis- 
tinguished by  the  production  of  poetical  genius, 
than  any  other  part  of  our  country.  Of  the  few 
poets  to  which  North-America  has  given  birth, 
several  of  the  most  eminent  are  natives  of  that 
State. 

But,  though  the  conspicuous  poets  of  America 
are  not  numerous,  we  are  by  no  means  to  ascribe 
this  circumstance  either  to  the  paucity  or  the  bar- 
renness of  American  genius.  Great  poetical  merit 
has  been  rare  in  all  ages,  and  in  all  countries ;  and, 
that  it  should  be  peculiarly  rare,  in  a  country 
where  literature  has  comparatively  few  votaries, 
and  where  those  who  have  any  taste  for  letters 
have  little  respite  from  the  toils  of  professional  and 
active  life,  is  so  far  from  being  unaccountable,  that 
the  contrary  would  be  wonderful. 


After  the  foregoing  details,  it  may  not  be  im- 
proper, before  closing  this  chapter,  to  offer  some 
general  reflections  on  the  peculiar  poetic  charac- 
ter of  the  eighteenth  century.  Having  already 
employed  so  many  pages  on  this  subject,  the  most 
brief  and  general  views  only  will  be  attempted. 

The  last  age  exceeds  all  preceding  periods  with 
respect  to  the  quantity  of  its  poetry.      It  is,  per- 


232  Poetry. 

haps,  not  going  beyond  the  truth  to  say,  that  & 
greater  amount  of  poetic  composition  was  pub- 
lished in  the  course  of  the  eighteenth  century,  than 
all  former  ages  together  could  furnish. 

It  may  also  be  stated  as  a  general  truth,  that 
the  poetry  of  the  last  age  is   more  distinguished 
for  taste  than  genius;  more  remarkable  for  polish, 
smoothness,    and    harmony,    than    for    invention, 
strength,  and  boldness  of  thought  and  imagery; 
and  abounds  more  in  those  qualities  which  soothe, 
amuse,  and  please,  than  in  those  which  elevate* 
astonish,  and   transport  the  mind.     To  some  of 
the  names  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  pages,  it  is 
readily  acknowledged  that  exalted  genius  belong- 
ed;   but,  without   staying   to  perform    the    task, 
equally  invidious  and  difficult,  of  adjusting  the  dif- 
ferent claims  of  authors  on  this  head,  it  may  cer- 
tainly be  hazarded,  as  a  general  remark,  that  the 
prevailing  character  of  modern  poetry  is  that  of 
correctness  and  taste.     While  those  who  were  most 
distinguished  in  preceding    times,  for  originality 
and  sublimity,   were  often  guilty  of  the  grossest 
violations  of  taste;  while,  in  many  of  their  writings, 
blunders    and  absurdities  were  frequently    found 
mixed  up,  in  nearly  equal  proportions,  with  beau- 
ties and  graces,  it  may  be  said,  to  the  honour  ot 
the  first  class  of  poets  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
that  if  they  fall  below  some  of  their  predecessors 
in  the  bold,  the  original,  and  the  sublime,  they  as 
much  exceed  them  in  taste,  refinement,  uniform 
propriety,  and  general  elegance  of  versification. 

It  may  further  be  asserted,  that  a  greater  portion 
of  the  poetry  of  the  last  age  is  purely  moral,  than 
wTas  ever  before  offered  to  mankind.  Most  of  the 
distinguished  poets  of  former  times  were  faulty  in 
this  respect,  and  some  of  them  grossly  so.  When 
we  look  particularly  into  the  English  poets  who 
lived  prior  co  the  eighteenth  century,  we  find  them 


Poetry.  233 

all,  if  we  except  Spencer,  Shakspeare,  and  Mil- 
ton, representing  love  rather  as  an  appetite  than 
a  chaste  and  dignified  passion.  Accordingly  they 
were  accustomed  to  put  language  into  the  mouths 
of  the  most  virtuous  and  delicate  females,  utterly 
inconsistent  with  our  ideas  of  decorum.  It  has 
been  said  that  Prior's  Henry  and  Emma  is  the 
first  poem  in  the  English  language,  keeping  in 
view  the  exception  before  stated,  in  which  love  is 
treated  with  the  decency  and  delicacy  to  which  it 
is  entitled. 

Among  many  of  the  later  poets  we  find  a  chaste- 
ness  in  the  exhibition  of  characters  and  manners, 
a  purity  of  morals,  and  a  delicacy  of  sentiment, 
which  transcend  all  former  example,  The  greater 
part  of  the  moral  pieces  of  Pope  may  be  safely 
applauded  in  this  view,  as  more  worthy  of  imi- 
tation than  those  of  most  of  his  predecessors. 
Young  has  enlisted  the  sublimity  of  imagination, 
and  the  music  of  numbers,  on  the  side  of  virtue  and 
piety,  with  the  most  happy  success.  The  muse  of 
Thomson,  while  pouring  forth  the  most  splendid 
beauties,  dictated 

"  Nothing  which,  dying,  he  could  wish  to  blot." 

For  the  same  kind  of  excellence  Goldsmith  and 
Johnson  deserve  the  highest  praise.  In  this  re- 
spect, also,CowPER  is  inferior  to  none.  His  various 
performances  display  beauty  of  description  and 
vigour  of  language,  blended  with  dignity  of  virtue 
and  piety,  to  a  degree  which  places  his  character, 
both  as  a  man  and  a  Christian,  in  a  most  honoura- 
ble point  of  light.  In  short,  to  discard  coarse  inde- 
licacy from  the  pictures  of  poetry;  to  recal  genius 
from  the  paths  of  vice  and  folly,  and  enlist  her  in  the 
service  or  chaste  enthusiasm,  and  divine  morality, 
are  among  the  shining  honours  of  the  last  age. 
And,  perhaps,  on  no  ground  does  its  poetic  chV 

VOL,  II.  zK 


2  3  i  Literati)  J  on  rnati . 

ractcr  deserve  higher  eulogium  than  tor  the  pro- 
duction and  the  general  popularity  of  such  writers 
as  Pope,  Ychtng,  Klopstock,  Gesner,  Thomson, 
and  Cow  per. 

Finally j  the  discoveries  in  science  which  distin- 
guish the  eighteenth  century  have  also  conferred 
Some  peculiarity  on  the  poetic  character  of  the  age, 
by  furnishing  the  poet  with  new  images,  and  more 
just  and  comprehensive  views  of  nature.  It  would 
not  be  difficult  to  show  that  the  improvements  in 
every  branch  of  the  phvsical  sciences,  and  particu- 
larlv  in  Natutal  Philosophy >  Chemistry,  and  Natural. 
History,  have  all  produced  new  materials  for  the 
labours  of  poetic  genius,  enriched  the  stores  both 
of  imagery  and  diction,  and  thus  contributed  to 
render  this  kind  of  composition  at  once  more  in- 
structive and  more  pleasing. 


CHAPTER  XXL 

LITERARY   journals. 

IN  the  former  part  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
"  it  was  a  consolation,  at  least  for  the  unsuccess- 
ful writer,  that  he  fell  insensibly  into  oblivion.  If 
he  committed  the  private  folly  of  printing  what 
no  one  would  purchase,  he  had  only  to  settle  the 
matter  with  his  publisher:  he  was  not  arraigned 
at  the  public  tribunal  as  if  he  had  committed  a 
crime  of  magnitude/"  But  in  the  latter  part  of 
that  century, periodical  Criticism  began  to  brandish 
its  formidable  weapon,  and  those  who  undertook 

y   Curttsit'ies  of  Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  I, 


Litr.rary  Joun 

far  the  poblk  Wex   (daced  in  i 
Puh)icatioB»,  DKld  ,ing 

accounts  arr  of  new b 

i»g  and  inv  nee, 

;k  their  riv:,  and  have  b 
tinuod.    Th  th  centur 

for  an  incr  their  nun; b  rioop 

changes  in  I 

,  and  for  a 
r  influence  on  the  ta  ions 

the  public. 

The '::.  r!<  of  this  kind  ever  undertaken, 

was   the  Journal  de 
by  M.  Sallo/  in  l'66£.     1 

wot;  nded  a  vast  variety  of  n  M  fa 

an  ace  which  -. 

rained  e 
men,  and  announced  whatever  ha-: 
that  :n  art,  or  c 

ic  and  chemistry,  o  I  and 

ical   observation  in  ana- 

,  the  d  and  secular 

d  the  censures  of  the  i 
all   p  i  to   be    noticed."      This  attempt 

veil  received,  that  in  the  cour 
a  fe  rs   it   was    imitated   in    almost   all   the 

an^ua^ 

Hafm 
:  v    M     B  To  I 

Memoirs  cles  Arts  et 
France,   by   M.    D 

Lei  . 

v?/e  des  L 

z  Drxifu  d:  Sallo  waa  an  E-  ilor  in  the  Parliament 

He  published  hi*  Journal  in  the  name  of  the  Sienr  dc  Hi 
footman ;  perhaps  because  he  entertained  but  a  faint  hope  «f 

•    ■ 


236  Literary  Journals. 

Bayle,  in  1684;  the  Bibliotheque  Universelk, 
Choisie,  et  Ancienne,  et  Moderne,  by  Le  Clerc^ 
about  the  same  time ;  the  History  of  the  Works  of 
the  Learned,  by  M.  Basnage,  in  1686 ;  the  Monath- 
lichen  Unterredungen,  of  Germany  in  1689;  the 
Bocckzalvan  Europe,  by  Peter  Rabbus,  in  Hol- 
land, in  1692;  an  Historical  Treatise  of  the  Jour- 
nals  of  the  Learned,  in  Latin,  by  Juncker,  the 
same  year;  the  Nova  Liter  aria  Maris  Balthici,  in 
1698;  together  with  several  others  in  Germany, 
prance,  and  Italy.  The  first  work  of  the  kind 
established  in  Great-Britain  was  the  History  of 
the  Works  of  the  Learned,  begun  in  London,  in 
1699.  Such  was  the  state  of  Europe,  with  respect 
to  literary  journals,  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  It  will  be  observed,  that,  as  they  began 
in  France,  so  they  were  most  numerous  and  most 
encouraged  in  that  country  for  a  long  time  after- 
wards. 

Soon  after  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
century  these  publications  greatly  increased,  both 
in  number  and  in  the  extent  of  their  circulation. 
But  this  increase,  for  the  first  forty  years  of  the 
period  we  are  considering,  was  chiefly  confined 
to  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  attempts  in 
Great-Britain  were  few  and  short-lived.  About 
the  beginning  of  the  century  M.  De  la  Roche 
formed  an  English  Journal,  entitled  Memoirs  of 
Literature.  To  this  succeeded  the  Present  State 
of  the  Republic  of  Letters,  by  Reid,  the  Censura 
Temporum,  established  in  1708,  and  the  Bibliotheca 
Curiosa,  about  the  same  time.  These,  however, 
were  by  no  means  so  instructive  and  interesting  as 
modern  Reviews.  They  only  gave  notices  of  a 
few  principal  publications,  and  retailed  selections 
from  foreign  journals;  and,  together  with  several 
others,  too  unimportant  to  be  named,  were  soon 
discontinued. 


Literary  Journals.  237 

No  establishment  of  this  nature,  either  perma- 
nent, or  in  any  high  degree  respectable,  was  made 
In  Great-Britain  until  1749,  when  the  Monthly 
Review  was  commenced,  which  has  been  ably 
supported  until  the  present  time.  The  Critical 
Review  was  established  in  1756,  nearly  on  the 
same  plan.  These  were  the  only  regular  works 
of  the  kind  in  England  until  1775,  when  another 
was  begun,  under  the  title  of  the  London  Review, 
by  Dr.  Kenrick,  which,  however,  lasted  but  a 
little  while.  From  that  period  to  the  end  of  the 
century  they  increased  rapidly  in  number.  They 
became  gradually  improved  in  their  form,  and 
were  made  to  present  a  greater  amount  of  infor- 
mation respecting  the  several  works  which  they 
reviewed.  Few  magazines,  or  periodical  publi- 
cations of  any  kind  have  been  undertaken  within 
a  few  years  past,  which  did  not  include  some  kind 
of  Review;  insomuch  that  the  literary  journals  in 
^Britain  at  present  are  extremely  numerous. 

The  attempts  to  establish  regular  Reviews  of 
new  books,  and  of  the  progress  of  letters  and 
science,  in  the  United  States,  have  been  few,  and 
generally  unsuccessful.  The  small  progress  of  a 
literary  taste  among  the  mass  of  our  citizens;  tfee 
scattered  state  of  our  population;  the  rarity  of 
leisure  with  those  who  are  best  entitled  to  the 
character  of  scholars,  together  with  the  want  of 
talents,  enterprize  and  capital  in  the  greater  num- 
ber of  those  who  have  hitherto  undertaken  to  con- 
duct such  works,  may  be  considered  as  the  prin- 
cipal causes  of  their  failure." 


a  As  early  as  I74r,  a  kind  of  Review  was  attempted  by  Dr.  Frank- 
lin, who,  in  a  Magazine  which  was  continued  only  for  a  few  months, 
gave  notices  of  new  American  books,  and  presented  liberal  extracts  from 
them.  Attempts  of  a  similar  kind  were  made  in  several  successive  works 
a  few  years  afterwards,  but  wich  as  little  encouragement  and  success. 
Exertions  were  made  to  establish  a  more  regular  Review  of  American  pub- 
lications, about  the  year  1 790,  in  two  periodical  works  nearly  at  the  same 


238  Literary  Journals. 

The  Reviews  of  the  eighteenth  century  are  pub- 
lications of  a  very  different  character  from  the 
literary  Journals  of  the  seventeenth.  A  great  por- 
tion of  the  latter  were  in  the  Latin  language ;  and 
almost  all  of  such  a  nature  as  to  be  intelligible 
only  to  the  learned.  Of  course  they  were  seen 
and  perused  by  few  persons,  and  their  influence' 
on  public  taste  and  opinion  was  comparatively 
small.  But  the  Reviews  of  the  last  age,  besides 
being  multiplied  to  an  unexampled  extent,  have 
received  a  popular  cast,  which  has  enabled  them 
to  descend  from  the  closets  of  philosophers,  and 
from  the  shelves  of  polite  scholars,  to  the  compting 
house  of  the  merchant,  to  the  shop  of  the  artizan, 
to  the  bower  of  the  husbandman,  and,  indeed,  to 
every  class  of  the  community,  excepting  the  most 
indigent  and  laborious.  In  fact,  they  have  con- 
tributed to  give  a  new  aspect  to  the  republic  of 
letters,  and  may  be  considered  as  among  the  most 
important  literary  engines  that  distinguished  the 
period  under  consideration. 

These  publications  have  produced  many  advant- 
ages. They  have  excited  a  more  general  attention 
to  the  progress  of  literature  than  any  former  period 
could  boast.  They  have  diffused  a  knowledge  of 
books,  a  taste  for  reading,  and  a  spirit  of  curiosity 
and  criticism,  more  widely  than  was  ever  before 
known,  and  among  a  portion  of  mankind  which  had 
never  before  been  reached  by  such  a  taste.  When 
well  conducted,  they  have  served  to  correct  public 
opinion ;  to  lay  a  salutary  restraint  on  adventurers 


time,  the  one  in  Philadelphia,  and  the  other  in  Boston.  They  were,  con- 
ducted, however,  on  a  very  small  scale,  with  little  of  the  boldness  and  im- 
partiality of  true  criticism,  and  commanded  little  attention  from  the  pub- 
lic. They  were,  consequently,  soon  laid  aside,  as  were  several  other  under- 
takings cf  a  similar  kind,  for  like  reasons.  In  1799  a  more  full  and  for- 
mal Review  was  begun  in  New- York,  which  has  continued  to  the  present 
time,  and  which,  from  the  share  of  public  patronage  and  attention  bests  .  :  I 
upon  it,  bids  fair  to  be  longer  lived  than  any  of  its  predecessors. 


Literary  Journals.  239* 

in  literature ;  to  present  a  powerful  and  useful 
check  to  the  licentiousness  of  the  press,  and  to  fur- 
nish rich  materials  for  the  history  of  human  know- 
ledge. It  is  true,  these  publications,  which  should 
be  guides  of  popular  opinion,  are  often  partial,  and 
sometimes  grossly  erroneous.  Written  by  a  number 
of  different  persons,  and,  of  course,  with  different 
abilities,  opinions,  passions,  and  prejudices,  the 
judgments  they  express  can  seldom  be  admitted 
without  cautious  inquiry  and  modification.  Still, 
however,  though  the  learned  must  ultimately  judge 
for  themselves,  yet  even  they  derive  benefit  from 
literary  journals  tolerably  conducted;  and  their 
influence  upon  the  great  mass  of  those  who  occa- 
sionally read,  is  extensive  and  important.  If  it  be 
objected  that  the  knowledge  they  diffuse  is  super- 
ficial, it  is  what  multitudes  would  never  attain,  if 
this  means  of  bringing  it  within  their  reach  were 
wanting;  and  that  it  is  no  better  than  total  igno- 
rance, none  will  presume  to  contend. 

There  is  another  class  of  publications  nearly  alli- 
ed to  literary  journals,  and  by  the  multiplication  of 
which  the  eighteenth  century  is  much  distinguish- 
ed, the  Transactions  of  Academics  and  philosophical 
Societies.  Publications  of  this  kind  appear  to  have 
taken  their  rise  near  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century;  but,  for  a  considerable  time  afterwards 
they  were  few  in  number,  and  were  presented  to 
the  public  at  distant  and  irregular  intervals.  Since 
the  commencement  of  the  period  under  considera- 
tion, they  have  greatly  increased  in  number,  in  the 
extent  of  their  circulation,  and  in  the  practical  and 
useful  nature  of  their  contents.  Associations  for 
literary  and  scientific  purposes,  of  various  kinds, 
and  under  different  names,  have  multiplied  in 
every  part  of  the  learned  world,  and  have  laid  be- 
fore the  public,  at  stated  times,  the  result  of  their 
experiments  and  inquiries;   insomuch  that  from 


240  Literary  Journals. 

the  aggregate  of  their  transactions  a  catalogue 
might  be  formed  of  several  thousand  volumes,  most 
of  which  include  much  matter  highly  interesting 
to  the  philosopher,  the  artist,  and  the  man  of  taste, 
and  may  be  considered  as  presenting  a  tolerable; 
history  of  human  knowledge  during  the  period 
which  they  embrace. 

This  mode  of  recording  and  announcing  the  dis- 
coveries and  labours  of  science,  though  productive 
of  much  good,  is  yet  not  without  its  disadvantages. 
To  understand  the  memoirs  and  acts  which  these 
ponderous  volumes  contain^  usually  requires  a  pro- 
found knowledge  of  the  subject.  They  are  ad- 
dressed by  philosophers  to  philosophers.  Hence, 
though  their  circulation  be  more  extensive  in 
modern  times  than  formerly,  they  are,  of  necessity^ 
even  yet  read  by  a  chosen  few.  On  this  account 
it  is,  that  while  the  archives  of  societies  are  filled 
with  interesting  and  instructive  memoirs,  these 
labours  of  the  learned  are  seldom  brought  forth 
from  their  obscure  retreat,  reduced  to  systematic 
arrangement,  and  exhibited  in  a  popular  manner* 
And  for  the  same  obvious  reason  it  happens  that 
the  transactions  of  literary  societies  display  a  repe- 
tition of  the  same  hints,  experiments  and  discove- 
ries, which,  for  want  of  being  more  generally 
known,  are  often  supposed,  at  each  successive  ex- 
hibition, to  be  original.  This  latter  evil,  however^ 
begins  to  be  in  some  measure  remedied,  by  adopt- 
ing a  more  popular  form  for  these  publications,  and 
also  by  communicating,  from  time  to  time,  to  the 
public,  the  most  important  portions  of  their  con- 
tents, in  vehicles  of  more  extensive  circulation. 

Next  to  regular  Rcviezvs,  and  the  formal  Me- 
moirs and  Transactions  of  literary  and  scientific 
societies,  it  is  proper  to  take  notice  of  the  numer- 
ous periodical  works,  under  the  name  of  Maga- 
zines, 8:c.  with  which  the  republic  of  letters  has 


Literary  Journals.  241 

abounded  in  modern  times.  The  astonishing 
number,  and  the  extensive  circulation  of  these 
works,  are  certainly  among  the  peculiar  charac- 
teristics of  the  age,  and  mark  an  important  asra  in 
the  history  of  learning. 

The  first  publication  ever  made  under  the  title 
of  a  Magazine  was  in  the  year  1731,  by  Edward 
Cave,  of  London,  who  then  commenced  the  Gen- 
tleman's Magazine,  which  has  been  continued  to 
the  present  time.  Several  periodical  works  had 
before  appeared  under  different  names;  but  they 
were  chiefly  confined  to  political  transactions,  and 
to  foreign  and  domestic  occurrences  of  various 
kinds,  without  paying  much  attention  to  literary 
objects.  Indeed,  this  was  the  case  with  Mr. 
Cave's  Magazine  for  several  years  after  its  com- 
mencement. The  way,  however,  was  gradually 
opened  for  the  introduction  of  literary,  moral,  and 
philosophical  discussions,  and  the  work  proved  to 
oe  one  of  the  most  popular  and  productive  perio- 
dical pamphlets  ever  published. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
especially  in  the  last  twelve  or  fifteen  years  of  this 
period,  these  monthly  miscellanies  multiplied  to  a 
prodigious  amount,  and  gained  a  circulation  be- 
yond all  former  example.  The  taste  for  works  of 
a  similar  kind  spread  rapidly  over  the  continent  of 
Europe,  insomuch  that  their  number  at  the  present 
time  is  almost  too  great  to  be  accurately  estimated. 

In  our  own  country  the  attempts  to  establish 
Magazines  of  different  kinds  have  been  very 
numerous;  but,  for  the  want  of  due  encourage- 
ment, have  generally  failed  in  a  short  time.  It  is 
believed  that  the  first  attempt  to  publish  a  work  of 
this  nature  in  North-America  was  about  the  year 
1741,  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin,  then  a  printer 
in  Philadelphia.  His  publication,  however,  under 
the  title  of  the  General  Magazine  and  Historical 

VOL.  II.  2  i 


242  Literary  Journals. 

Chronicle,  after  a  few  months  was  discontinued. 
Since  that  time  many  similar  undertakings  have 
solicited  the  public  patronage,  and  have  gained 
attention  and  currency  for  a  time,  but  have  seldom 
protracted  their  existence  beyond  four,  six,  or,  at 
most,  eight  years. 

The  influence  of  these  miscellaneous  publica- 
tions has  been  as  remarkable  and  extensive  as  their 
number.  This  influence  has  been  in  many  respects 
advantageous.  They  have  excited  a  taste  for  read- 
ing in  many  who  could  never  have  endured  it  un- 
der any  other  form  than  that  of  amusement  They 
have  inspired  many  youthful  minds  with  a  spirit  of 
literary  ambition  and  enterprize,  which  $vas  after- 
wards productive  of  the  most  brilliant  and  success- 
ful exertions.  They  have  recorded  a  number  of 
facts,  hints,  observations  and  discussions,  instruc- 
tive at  the  time  they  were  made,  and  invaluable  to 
posterity;  but  which  would  inevitably  have  been 
lostvhad  they  been  presented  to  the  public  in  a 
more  evanescent  form.  And,  finally,  they  have 
shed,  in  a  gradual  and  almost  insensible  manner, 
numberless  rays  of  knowledge  among  all  descrip- 
tions of  persons  in  the  community,  even  indirectly 
among  millions  who  never  enjoyed  the  perusal  of 
them,  and  have  thus  greatly  enlarged 'the  public 
understanding,  and  astonishingly  increased  the  sum 
of  popular  information. 

But  the  great  popularity,  and  the  unexampled 
circulation  of  these  periodical  works,  have  also 
been  attended  with  some  disadvantages.  They 
have  made  thousands  of  light,  ostentatious  and 
superficial  scholars,  and  have  evidently  operated 
unfavourably  to  sound  and  deep  erudition.  They 
have  led  many  a  self-sufficient  pedant  to  content 
himself  with  shining  in  borrowed  plumes,  and  to 
indulge  in  the  deceitful  expectation  of  finding  short 
and  easy  paths  to  real  scholarship.     They  have  dis- 


Literary  Journals.  2-1-3 

conran-ed  those  habits  of  connected  reading  and  of 
patient  systematic  thinking,  which  were  the  glory 
of  the  learned  in  former  ages,  and  enabled  them 
to  accomplish  those  mighty  labours  which  fix  their 
posterity  in  astonishment.  Accordingly  it  would, 
perhaps,  be  no  difficult  task  to  show  that  the  general 
literary  features  of  the  period  before  us  remarkably 
correspond  with  this  unfavourable  picture,  and 
that  the  general  diffusion  of  superficial  reading  and 
scraps  of  knowledge  may  be  said,  pre-eminently, 
to  characterize  the  last  age. 

But  this  is  not  the  whole  of  the  evil.  Such  are 
the  effects  which  must  result  from  the  general  cir- 
culation of  works  of  this  nature,  supposing  them  to 
be,  on  the  whole,  well  conducted.  Many  of  them, 
however,  are  by  no  means  entitled  to  this  character. 
They  have  often  given  prompt  and  willing  cur- 
rency to  erroneous  opinions  in  morals  and  religion. 
They  are  too  frequently  found  receptacles  of  such 
filth,'  obscenity  and  impiety,  as  are  fit  for  the  perusal 
of  none  but  the  prostitute,  the  thief,  and  the  mur- 
derer. It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  the  effect 
of  such  publications  on  the  manners,  principles 
and  happiness  of  society,  must  be  in  a  high  degree 
pestiferous;  and  that  this  is  one  among  the 
numerous  instances  in  modern  times,  in  which 
literature,  perverted  and  abused  under  plausible 
forms,  has  been  found  insidiously  to  undermine  the 
morals  and  welfare  of  man. 

Another  item  in  the  literary  history  of  the  age_ 
falls,  perhaps,  more  properly  within  the  design  of 
this  chapter  than  any  other  part  of  the  present 
sketch.  The  mode  of  addressing  the  public  by- 
short  periodical  Essays,  though  not  wholly  peculiar 
to  the  eighteenth  century,  was  yet  so  much  extend- 
ed, and  had  such  a  powerful  Influence  in  this 
period,  as  to  entitle  it  to  be  ranked  among  the  re- 
markable circumstances  of  the  age.     "To  teach 


244  Literary  Journals. 

the  minuter  decencies  and  inferior  duties;  to  regu- 
late the  practice  of  daily  conversation ;  to  correct 
those  depravities  which  are  rather  ridiculous  than 
criminal,  and  remove  those  grievances  which,  if 
they  produce  no  lasting  calamities,  impress  hourly- 
vexation,  was  first  attempted  by  Casa,  in  his  book 
of  Manners,  and  by  Castiglione,  in  his  Courtier / 
two  books  yet  celebrated  in  Italy  for  purity  and 
elegance ;  and  which,  if  they  are  now  less  read,  are 
neglected,  only,  because  they  have  effected  that 
reformation  which  their  authors  intended,  and  their 
precepts  are  no  longer  wanted.  Their  usefulness 
to  the  age  in  which  they  were  written  is  suffici- 
ently attested  by  the  translations  which  almost  all 
the  nations  of  Europe  were  in  haste  to  obtain. 
This  species  of  instruction  was  continued,  and,  per- 
haps, advanced  by  the  French,  among  whom  La 
Bruyere's  Manners  of  the  Age,c  though,  as  Boi- 
leau  remarked,  it  is  written  without  connection, 
certainly  deserves  great  praise  for  liveliness  of  de- 
scription, and  justness  of  observation. "rf 

The  first  series  of  essays  devoted  to  common 
life  in  Great-Britain  was  the  Tatler;  the  publica- 
tion of  which  began  in  1709,  by  Sir  Richard 
Steele,  assisted  by  Addison,  Tickel,  and  others. 
It  appeared  three  times  a-week.  To  the  Tatler, 
in  about  three  months  succeeded  the  Spectator  > 
a  series  of  essays  of  the  same  kind,  but  written 
with  less  levity,  upon  a  more  regular  plan,  and  pub- 
lished daily.  "  The  Tatler  and  Spectator,"  says 
Dr.  Johnson,  "  adjusted,  like  Casa,  the  unsettled 
practice  of  daily  intercourse  by  propriety  and 
politeness;  and,  like  La  Bruyere,  exhibited  the 
characters  and  manners  of  the  age.-    But  to  say 

b  Casa  and  Castiglicne  were  Italian  writers,  who  flourished  in  the 
sixteenth  century. 

cLa  Bruyere  wrote  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
d  Johnson's  Lift:  of  Addison. 


Literary  Journals.  g  1 5 

that  they  united  the  plans  of  two  or  three  eminent 
writers,  is  to  give  them  but  a  small  part  of  their 
due  praise.  They  superadded  literature  and  cri- 
ticism, and  sometimes  towered  far  above  their  pre- 
decessors, and  taught,  with  great  justness  of  argu- 
ment, and  dignity  of  language,  the  most  important 
duties  and  sublime  truths.  All  these  topics  were 
happily  varied  with  elegant  fictions  and  refined 
allegories,  and  illuminated  with  different  changes 
of  style  and  felicities  of  invention.  It  is  said  by 
Addison,  in  a  subsequent  work,  that  they  had  a 
perceptible  influence  upon  the  conversation  of  that 
time,  and  taught  the  frolic  and  the  gay  to  unite 
merriment  with  decency;  an  effect  which  they 
can  never  wholly  lose  while  they  continue  to  be 
among  the  first  books,  by  which  both  sexes  are 
initiated  in  the  elegances  of  knowledge."' 

The  Spectator  had  not  been  supported  more 
than  eighteen  months  when  it  was  discontinued. 
The  year  after,  viz.  in  1713,  the  Guardian  was 
undertaken  by  the  same  Editor,  assisted  by  the 
gentlemen  before  mentioned,  as  well  as  by  Mr. 
Pope,  Dr.  Berkley,  and  others,  and  continued  a 
little  more  than  six  months,  with  nearly  the  same 
respectability  and  success  which  had  attended  its 
predecessor.  It  was  natural  for  the  excellence 
and  the  reputation  of  those  papers  to  produce 
many  imitations.  Accordingly,  for  a  number 
of  years  afterwards,  periodical  papers  were  con- 
tinually announced,  and  pursued  for  a  little  while, 
under  different  names,  and  upon  various  plans; 
but  they  were  generally  feeble  when  compared 
with  the  noble  models  which  had  gone  before 
them,  and  seldom  commanded  the  public  atten- 
tion for  any  length  of  time.  Among  these  might 
be  enumerated  the  Free-Thinker,  the  Humourist, 

e  Life  of  Addison. 


246  Literary  Journals. 

the  Observer,  and  a  vast  multitude  of  others  that 
rose  into  view,  lived  their  day,  and  sunk  into  for- 
getfulness.  Cato's  Letters,  and  the  Craftsman, 
were  executed  with  greater  ability,  and  were  also 
better  received,  being  more  devoted  to  political: 
discussion,  than  the  papers  which  had  gone  before 
them.  In  1750  the  Rambler  appeared,  and  for 
the  first  time  presented  a  rival  to  the  enchanting 
productions  of  Addison  and  his  contemporaries. 
In  this  work  Dr.  Johnson,  the  principal  writer, 
carried  the  composition  of  moral  essays,  and  in- 
structive narrations,  with  respect  to  purity  and 
dignity  of  sentiment,  acuteness  of  observation, 
and  vigour  of  style,  to  a  higher  degree  of  perfec- 
tion than  they  had  ever  before  reached.  Next 
followed  the  Idler,  also  by  Dr.  Johnson,  but  less 
laboured,  and  more  light  and  superficial  in  its  cha- 
racter than  the  Rambler.  These  were  succeeded 
by  the  Adventurer,  the  World,  the  Connoisseur,  the 
Mirror,  the  Looker-On,  the  Lounger,  the  Observer, 
and  a  number  of  others  which  deserve  respectful 
mention,  which  contain  many  papers  of  high 
merit,  and  will  long  be  read  with  pleasure.  The 
numerous  unsuccessful  attempts  which  have  been 
made,  within  a  few  years  past,  to  revive  this  mode 
of  writing,  seem  to  indicate  that  it  is  nearly  ex- 
hausted j  and  that  to  renew  and  carry  it  on  re- 
quires more  diligence, ability  and  leisure,  than  com- 
monly fall  to  the  lot  of  those  who  adventure  in. 
such  a  field. 

From  the  foregoing  details,  it  appears  that  the 
eighteenth  century  may  be  emphatically  called  the 
age  of  periodical  publications.  In  the  number  of 
these  it  so  far  transcends  all  preceding  times,  as  to 
forbid  comparison;  and  their  amusing,  popular 
form  constitutes  a  peculiarty  in  the  literary  his- 
tory of  the  period  under  consideration,  equally 
signal.     They  form  the  principal  means  of  diffus- 


Political  Journals.  247 

ing  knowledge  through  every  part  of  the  civilized 
world;  they  convey,  in  an  abridged  and  agree- 
able manner,  the  contents  of  many  ponderous 
volumes,  and  frequently  supercede  the  appearance 
of  such  volumes ;  and  they  record  every  species  of 
information,  from  the  most  sublime  investigations 
of  science  to  the  most  trifling  concerns  of  amuse- 
ment. When  the  future  historian  shall  desire  to 
obtain  a  correct  view  of  the  state  of  literature  and 
of  manners,  during  this  period,  he  will  probably 
resort  to  the  periodical  publications  of  the  day,  as 
presenting  the  richest  sources  of  information,  and 
forming  the  most  enlightened  and  infallible  guides 
in  his  course. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

POLITICAL  JOURNALS. 

THE  method  of  announcing  political  events,  and 
the  various  articles  of  foreign  and  domestic  intelli- 
gence, which  usually  engage  the  attention  of  the 
public,  by  means  of  Gazettes  or  Nezvspapers,  seems 
to  have  been  first  employed  in  Italy,  as  early  as 
the  year  1536/  It  was  in  that  country  that  these 
vehicles  of  information  received  the  name  Ga- 
zetta/ which  they  have  ever  since  retained/ 

f  The  first  Gazette  is  said  to  have  been  printed  at  Venice,  and  to  have 
been  published  monthly.     It  was  under  the  direction  of  the  government. 

g  The  word  Gazetta  is  said,  by  some,  to  be  derived  from  Gaze,  r  a,  a 
Magpie  or  Chatterer ;  by  others,  from  the  name  of  a  little  coin  called  Gazetia, 
peculiar  to  the  city  of  Venice,  where  newspapers  were  first  printed,  and 
which  was  the  common  price  of  these  periodical  publications ;  while  a 
third  class  of  critics  suppose  it  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin  word  Gaza-, 
colloquially  lengthened  into  the  diminutive  Gazetta,  and,  as  applied  to  a 
newspaper,  signifying  a  little  treasury  of  news.  Curiosities  of  Literature* 
vol.  i.   p.  271. 

h  Those  who  first  wrote  newspapers  were  called  by  the  Italians  Mc 


248  Political  Journals 

The  earliest  newspaper  printed  in  Great-Britain 
was    "  The  English   Merairie,  by  Christopher 
Barker,  her  highnesses  printer/'  in  1588.     But 
public  prints  of  this  kind,  after  the  dispersion  of 
the  Spanish  Armada,  seldom  appeared.     The  first 
regular  weekly  newspaper  published  in  that  coun- 
try was  by  Nathaniel  Butter,  in  August,  1622, 
entitled    "   The   certaine   Neives   of  this  present 
Weeke."      Three  years   afterwards  another  of  a 
similar  kind   was   established.      But,  during  the 
civil  wars,  which  took  place  under  the  Protec- 
torate of  Cromwell,  these  channels  of  public  in- 
telligence became  more  numerous  than  ever;  and 
were  diligently  employed  by  both  parties  to*  dis- 
seminate their  opinions  among  the  people.    About 
that    time  appeared  the  Mercurius  Aulicus,   the 
Alercurius  Husticus,    and  the  Mercurius  Civicus, 
&c.     And,  it  is  said,  that  "  when  any  title  grew 
popular,  it  was  frequently  stolen  by  some  anta- 
gonist, who,  by  this  stratagem,  obtained  access  to 
those  who  would  not  have  received  him,  had  he 
not  worn  the    appearance   of  a   friend.      These 
papers  soon  became  a  public  nuisance.     Serving 
as  receptacles  of  party  malice,  they  set  the  minds' 
of  men  more  at  variance,  inflamed  their  resent- 
ments into  greater  fierceness,  and  gave  a  keener 
and  more  destructive  edge  to  civil  discord.     But 
the  convulsions  of  those  unhappy  days  left  few 
either  the  leisure,  the  tranquillity,  or  the  inclina- 
tion to  treasure  up  occasional  or  curious  composi- 
tions; and  so  much  were  they  neglected  that  a 
complete  collection  is  now  no  where  to  be  found, 
and  little  is  known  respecting  them."' 


nanti;   because,  says  Vossius,   they   intended  commonly  by  these  loose 
papers  to   spread  about  defamatory  reflections,  and  were  therefore  prohi- 
bited by  Gregory  XIII.   by  a  particular  bull,  under  the  name  of  Menan- 
tist  from  the  Latin  minantes.      Curiosities  of  Liitratur*)  vol.  i.  p.  273. 
i  Johnson's  Lift  <?/Ab»ison. 


Political  Journals.  249 

The  earliest  British  Gazette  of  which  any  dis- 
tinct record  remains,  was  that  published  in  1663, 
by  Sir  Rog-er  L'Estrange,  under  the  title  of  the 
Public  Intelligencer.  This  he  continued  until  the 
year  1665,  when  a  kind  of  court  newspaper  was 
established  at  Oxford,  then  the  seat  of  government, 
and  issued  every  Tuesday.  The  first  number  was 
printed  in  the  month  of  November  of  that  year, 
and  appears  to  have  superseded  Sir  Roger's.  Soon 
after  this  the  court  was  removed  to  London,  on 
which  the  title  of  the  paper  was  changed  to  the 
London  Gazette,  the  name  which  it  still  bears. 

From  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the 
employment  of  newspapers  as  channels  of  intel- 
ligence became  more  frequent  and  popular,  not 
only  in  Great-Britain,  but  also  in  several  other 
countries  of  Europe.  Newspapers  and  pamphlets 
were  prohibited  in  England  by  royal  proclamation 
in  1680.  At  the  revolution,  in  1688,  this  prohibition 
was  taken  off;  but,  in  a  few  years  afterwards  news- 
papers were  made  the  objects  of  taxation,  and 
were  first  stamped  for  this  purpose  in  1713.  Their 
number,  however,  has  been  constantly  increasing 
from  that  period  till  the  present  time.  But  since 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  this 
increase,  particularly  in  Great-Britain/  France, 
Germany,  and  America,  has  been  almost  incre- 
dibly great. 

Perhaps  in  no  respect,  and  certainly  in  no  other 
enterprizes  of  a  literary  kind,  have  the  United 
States  made  such  rapid  progress  as  in  the  esta- 
blishment of  political  journals.     At  the  beginning 


j  There  was  no  newspaper  in  Scotland  till  after  the  accession  of  King 
William  and  Queen  Mart.  At  the  Union  there  were  three  established 
in  that  part  of  the  United  Kingdom.  In  the  kingdom  of  Great-Britain 
the  whole  number  of  newspapers  printed  in  the  year  1775,  was  12,680,000. 
In  178a  the  number  had  increased  to  I5,*7*,jl9.  At  the  close  of  the 
century  they  were  still  more  numerous. 
VOL.    II.  »K 


250  Political  Journals. 

of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  no  publica- 
tion  of  this  kind  in  the  United  Colonies,  The 
first  newspaper  printed  in  America  was  the  Boston 
News-Letter,  begun  April  24th,  1704,  in  the  town 
whose  name  it  bears,  by  B.  Green.  The  second 
was  the  Boston  Gazette,  which  commenced  towards 
the  latter  end  of  the  year  1720,  by  Samuel  Knee- 
land.  The  next  year  a  third  was  published  under 
the  title 'of  the  New-England  C our  ant,  by  James 
Franklin/  Between  the  last  mentioned  year  and 
1730,  three  other  newspapers  were  published  in 
Boston*  though  some  of  them  appear  to  have  been 
soon  laid  aside.  As  the  first  printing  work  done 
in  North-America  was  executed  in  Massachusetts, 
so  in  that  colony  the  earliest,  and,  for  a  number 
of  years,  the  most  vigorous  and  successful  exer- 
tions were  made  for  the  establishment  and  circu- 
lation of  political  journals. 

The  first  newspaper  printed  in  Pennsylvania 
was  The  American  Weekly  Mercury,  by  Andrew 
Bradford,  the  publication  of  which  commenced 
December  22,  1719.  The  first  printed  in  New- 
York,  it  is  believed,  was  by  William  Bradford/ 
October  16th,  1725,  under  the  title  of  The  New- 
York  Gazette.  The  first  paper  published  in  Rhode- 
Island  was  the  Rhode-Island  Gazette,  by  James 
Franklin,  before  mentioned,  who  began  the  pub- 
lication in  October,  1732.  The  first  in  Connec- 
ticut was  by  James  Parker,  in   1755;  and  the 


l  James  Franklin  was  a  brother  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  after- 
wards became  so  conspicuous  as  a  man  of  science  and  a  politician.  Ben* 
j  amin  was  at  that  time  employed  as  an  apprentice  in  his  brother's  office, 
and  contributed  much  to  render  the  Courant  popular. 

/  The  family  of  the  Bradfords  deserves  to  be  mentioned  in  honoura- 
ble connection  with  that  of  the  Greens,  in  the  annals  of  American  print- 
ing. The  press  of  Samuel  Green  was  the  first  introduced  into  New- 
England;  and  the  presses  of  Andrew  and  William  Bradford  were, 
it  is  believed,  the  first  established  in  Pennsylvania  and  New- York.  It  is 
remarkable  that  there  has  been,  for  more  than  a  century  past,  in  both 
these  families,  a  constant  and  respectable  succession  of  printers, 


Political  Journals.  251 

first  in  Nexv-Hampshire,  by  Daniel  Fowle,  in 
1756.  The  periods  at  which  Gazettes  were  first 
introduced  into  the  other  States  are  not  certainly 
known.  In  1771  they  had  increased  to  the  num- 
ber of  twenty-five ;  and  in  1801,  more  than  one 
hundred  and  eighty  different  newspapers  were 
printed  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States/' 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  newspapers  have 
almost  entirely  changed  their  form  and  character 
within  the  period  under  review.  For  a  long 
time  after  they  were  first  adopted  as  a  medium 
of  communication  to  the  public,  they  were  con- 
fined, in  general,  to  the  mere  statement  of  facts. 
But  they  have  gradually  assumed  an  office  more 
extensive,  and  risen  to  a  more  important  station 
in  society.  They  have  become  the  vehicles  of  dis- 
cussion in  which  the  principles  of  government,  the 
interests  of  nations,  the  spirit  and  tendency  of  pub- 
lic measures,  and  the  public  and  private  characters 
of  individuals  are  all  arraigned,  tried,  and  decided. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  being  considered  now,  as 
they  once  were,  of  small  moment  in  society,  they 
have  become  immense  moral  and  political  engines, 
closely  connected  with  the  welfare  of  the  state, 
and  deeply  involving  both  its  peace  and  prosperity. 

m  Of  these  about  fifteen  are  daily  papers ;  and  supposing  looo  copies  of 
«ach  to  be  printed,  the  whole  number  of  copies  annually  distributed,  mak- 
ing due  allowance  for  Sundays,  &c.  will  be  about  4,590,000.  The  num- 
ber printed  three  times  a  week  is  about  nine.  Of  these,  supposing  800 
copies  to  be  on  an  average  stricken  off,  the  amount  annually  distributed 
will  be  1,080,000.  About  twenty-five  are  printed  twice  a  week.  Of  these, 
allowing  800  copies  each  to  be  the  common  number  sent  abroad,  the  num- 
ber annually  circulated  will  be  2,000,000.  Finally,  about  one  hundred  and 
thirty  newspapers  are  printed  -weekly  ;  and,  allowing  the  number  of  each 
published  to  be  800,  the  amount  of  this  class  annually  edited  will  be 
5,408,000.  So  that  the  whole  number  of  newspapers  annually  circulated 
in  the  United  States  may  be  estimated  at  thirteen  millions  and  seventy-eight 
thousand.  For  the  sake  of  being  rather  below  than  above  the  mark,  say 
tzvelve  millions.  It  will  be  seen,  by  comparing  this  with  a  preceding  note, 
that,  while  the  population  of  the  United  States  is  not  more  than  one-half 
of  that  of  Great-Britain,  the  number  of  newspapers  circulated  in  the  for- 
mer country  may  be  estimated  at  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  number  pub- 
lished in  the  latter. 


252  Political  Journals. 

Newspapers  have  also  become  important  in  a 
literary  view.  There  are  few  of  them,  within  the 
last  twenty  years,  which  have  not  added  to  their 
political  details  some  curious  and  useful  informa- 
tion, on  the  various  subjects  of  literature,  science 
and  art.  They  have  thus  become  the  means  of 
conveying  to  every  class  in  society,  innumerable 
scraps  of  knowledge,  which  have  at  once  increased 
the  public  intelligence,  and  extended  the  taste  for 
perusing  periodical  publications.  The  advertise- 
ments, moreover,  which  they  daily  contain,  re- 
specting new  books,  projects,  inventions,  disco- 
veries and  improvements,  are  well  calculated  to 
enlarge  and  enlighten  the  public  mind,  and  are 
worthy  of  being  enumerated  among  the  many 
methods  of  awakening  and  maintaining  the  popular 
attention,  with  which  more  modern  times,  beyond 
all  preceding  example,  abound. 

In  ancient  times,  to  sow  the  seeds  of  civil,  dis- 
cord, or  to  produce  a  spirit  of  union  and  co-opera- 
tion through  an  extensive  community,  required 
time,  patience,  and  a  constant  series  of  exertions. 
The  art  of  printing  being  unknown,  and  many  of 
the  modern  methods  of  communicating  intelli- 
gence to  distant  places  not  having  come  into  use, 
the  difficulty  of  conducting  public  affairs  must  have 
been  frequently  great  and  embarrassing.  The 
general  circulation  of  Gazettes  forms  an  important 
sera,  not  only  in  the  moral  and  literary,  but  also 
in  the  political  world.  By  means  of  this  powerful 
instrument  impressions  on  the  public  mind  may 
be  made  with  a  celerity,  and  to  an  extent  of  which 
our  remote  ancestors  had  no  conception, and  which 
cannot  but  give  rise  to  the  most  important  conse- 
quences in  society.  Never  was  there  given  to 
man  a  political  engine  of  greater  power;  and  never, 
assuredly,  did  this  engine  before  operate  upon  so 
large  a  scale  as  in  the  eighteenth  century. 


Political  Journals.  053 

Our  own  country  in  particular,  and  especially 
for  the  last  twelve  or  fifteen  years,  has  exhibited  a 
spectacle  never  before  displayed  among  men,  and 
even  yet  without  a  parallel  on  earth.  It  is  the 
spectacle,  not  of  the  learned  and  the  wealthy  only, 
but  of  the  great  body  of  the  people;  even  a  large 
portion  of  that  class  of  the  community  which  is 
destined  to  daily  labour,  having  free  and  constant 
access  to  public  prints,  receiving  regular  informa- 
tion of  every  occurrence,  attending  to  the  course 
of  political  affairs,  discussing  public  measures,  and 
having  thus  presented  to  them  constant  excitements 
to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  and  continual 
means  of  obtaining  it.  Never,  it  may  be  safely 
asserted,  was  the  number  of  political  journals  so 
great  in  proportion  to  the  population  of  a  country 
as  at  present  in  ours.  Never  were  they,  all  things 
considered,  so  cheap,  so  universally  diffused,  and  so 
easy  of  access."  And  never  were  they  actually  pe- 
rused by  so  large  a  majority  of  all  classes  since  the 
art  of  printing  was  discovered. 

The  general  effects  of  this  unprecedented  mul- 
tiplication and  diffusion  of  public  prints,  form  a 
subject  of  most  interesting  and  complex  calcu- 
lation. On  the  one  hand,  when  well  conducted, 
they  have  a  tendency  to  disseminate  useful  infor- 
mation; to  keep  the  public  mind  awake  and  ac- 
tive; to  confirm  and  extend  the  love  of  freedom; 
to  correct  the  mistakes  of  the  ignorant,  and  the  im- 
positions of  the  crafty;  to  tear  off  the  mask  from 
corrupt  and^ designing  politicians;  and,  finally,  to 
promote  union  of  spirit  and  of  action  among  the 
most  distant  members  of  an  extended  community. 
But  to  pursue  a  path  calculated  to  produce  these 

n  The  extreme  cheapness  with  which  newspapers  are  conveyed  by  the 
mail,  in  the  United  States,  added  to  the  circumstance  of  their  being  alto- 
gether unincumbered  with  a  stamp  duty,  or  any  other  public  restriction, 
renders  their  circulation  more  convenient  and  general  than  in  any  other 
country. 


254  Political  Journals. 

effects,  the  conductors  of  public  prints  ought  to  be 
men  of  talents,  learning,  and  virtue.  Under  the 
guidance  of  such  characters,  every  Gazette  would 
be  a  source  of  moral  and  political  instruction,  and, 
of  course,  a  public  blessing. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  an  instrument  so  po- 
tent is  committed  to  the  weak,  the  ignorant,  and 
the  vicious,  the  most  baneful  consequences  must 
be  anticipated.  When  men  of  small  talents,  of  lit- 
tle information,  and  of  less  virtue,  undertake  to  be 
(as  the  editors  of  public  gazettes,  however  con- 
temptible their  character,  may  in  a  degree  be  con- 
sidered) the  directors  of  public  opinion,  what  must 
be  the  result?  We  may  expect  to  see  the  frivoli- 
ties of  weakness,  the  errors  and  malignity  of  pre- 
judice, the  misrepresentations  of  party  zeal,  the 
most  corrupt  doctrines  in  politics  and  morals, 
the  lacerations  of  private  character,  and  the  pol- 
luting language  of  obscenity  and  impiety,  daily 
issuing  from  the  press,  poisoning  the  principles, 
and  disturbing  the  repose  of  society ;  giving  to  the 
natural  and  salutary  collisions  of  parties  the  most 
brutal  violence  and  ferocity;  and,  at  length,  con- 
suming the  best  feelings  and  noblest  charities  of 
life,  in  the  flame  of  civil  discord. 

In  the  former  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
talents  and  learning,  at  least,  if  not  virtue,  were 
thought  necessary  in  the  conductors  of  political 
journals.0  Few  ventured  to  intrude  into  this  ar- 
duous office,  but  those  who  had  some  claims  to  li- 
terature. Towards  the  close  of  the  century,  how- 
ever, persons  of  less  character,  and  of  humbler  qua- 
lifications, began,  without  scruple,  toundertake  the 


e  This  has  not  been,  generally,  so  much  the  case  in  America  as  in 
Europe.  From  the  earliest  period  too  many  of  our  Gazettes  have  been 
in  the  hands  of  persons  who  were  destitute  both  of  talents  and  literature. 
But  in  later  times,  the  number  of  editors  who  fall  under  this  description 
i^s  become  even  greater  than  formerly. 


Political  Journals.  255 

hi^b  task  of  enlightening  the  public  mind.  This 
remark  applies,  in  some  degree,  to  Europe;  but 
i!  applies  with  particular  force  to  our  own  country, 
where  every  judicious  observer  must  perceive,  that 
too  many  of  our  Gazettes  are  in  the  hands  of  per- 
sons, destitute  at  once  of  the  urbanity  of  gen- 
tle nen,  the  information  of  scholars,  and  the  prin- 
ciples of  virtue.  To  this  source,  rather  than  to 
any  peculiar  depravity  of  national  character,  we 
may  ascribe  the  faults  of  American  newspapers, 
which  have  been  pronounced  by  travellers,  the  most 
profligate  and  scurrilous  public  prints  in  the  civi- 
lized world/ 

H  the  foregoing  remarks  be  just,  then  the 
friend  of  rational  freedom,  and  of  social  happi- 
ness; cannot  but  contemplate  with  the  utmost  soli- 
citude, the  future  influence  of  political  journals 
on  the  welfare  of  society.  As  they  form  one  of  the 
great  safeguards  of  free  government,  so  they  also 
form  one  of  its  most  threatening  assailants.  And 
unless  public  opinion  (the  best  remedy  that  can  be 
applied)  should  administer  an  adequate  correction 
of  the  growing  evil,  we  may  anticipate  the  arrival 
of  that  crisis  in  which  we  must  yield  either  to  an 
abridgment  of  the  liberty  of  the  press,  or  to  a  dis- 
ruption of  every  social  bond. 


p  These  considerations,  it  is  conceived,  are  abundantly  sufficient  to  ac- 
count for  the  disagreeable  character  of  American  newspapers,  In  every 
country  the  selfish  principle  prompts  men  to  defame  their  personal  and 
political  enemies ;  and  where  the  supposed  provocations  to  this  are  numer- 
ous, and  no  restraints  are  imposed  on  the  indulgence  of  the  disposition,  an 
inundation  of  filth  and  calumny  must  be  expected.  In  the  United  States 
the  frequency  of  Elections  leads  to  a  corresponding  frequency  of  struggle 
between  political  parties ;  these  struggles  naturally  engender  mischievous 
passions,  and  every  species  of  coarse  invective;  and,  unhappily,  too  many 
of  the  conductors  of  our  public  prints  have  neither  the  discernment,  the 
firmness,  nor  the  virtue  to  reject  from  their  pages  the  foul  ebullitions  of 
prejudice  and  malice.  Had  they  more  diligence,  or  greater  talents,  they 
might  render  their  Gazettes  interesting,  by  filling  them  with  materials  of 
a  more  instructive  and  dignified  kind ;  but  wanting  these  qualifications, 
they  must  give  such  materials,  accompanied  with  such  a  seasoning,  as  cir- 
cumstances furnish.     Of  what  kind  these  arc  no  one  is  ignorant. 


(     256      ) 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


LITERARY  AND  SCIENTIFIC  ASSOCIATIONS. 

FOR  a  long  time  after  the  revival  of  learning  in 
Europe,  men  devoted  to  letters  were,  in  a  great 
measure,  insulated  with  respect  to  each  other.  We 
read,  it  is  true,  of  a  society  of  learned  men,  asso- 
ciated for  the  purpose  of  promoting  literature  and 
science,  as  early  as  the  time  of  Charlemagne  $ 
but  the  plan  appears  to  have  been  rude  and  de- 
fective. Several  others  were  instituted  in  Italy, 
in  the  sixteenth  century;  still,  however,  they  seem 
to  have  been,  both  in  their  formation  and  effects, 
much  inferior  to  many  which  have  flourished  since. 
The  most  enlarged  ideas  of  literary  societies  seem 
to  have  originated  with  the  great  Lord  Bacon* 
who,  in  his  New  Atalantis,  delineated  a  plan  of  one 
more  liberal  and  extensive  than  had  ever  before 
existed.  But  although  his  project  received  little 
encouragement  from  his  contemporaries,  it  was 
destined  to  produce  important  effects  not  long  af- 
terwards. 

In  the  seventeenth  century,  the  taste  for  form- 
ing scientific  and  literary  societies  may  be  said  to 
have  commenced  its  prevalence,  and  to  have 
gained  considerable  ground.  It  was  a  little  after 
the  middle  of  that  century  that  the  two  most  con-* 
spicuous  associations  of  the  kind  in  Europe,  viz. 
The  Royal  Society  of  Great-Britain,  and  The  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences  of  France,  were  formed. 
The  former  by  Mr.  Boyle,  Mr.  Hooke,  and  a 
number  of  others,  who,  at  that  time,  held  a  high 
station  in  the  philosophical  world  \  and  the  latter  by 


Literary  and  Scientific  Associations.       257 

Louis  XIV.  prompted  by  the  suggestion,  and  as- 
sisted by  the  counsels  of  his  minister,  M.  Colbert. 
But  the  eighteenth  century  is  pre-eminently  re- 
markable for  multiplying  these  associations;  for  a 
great  increase  in  the  number  of  their  publications; 
and  for  their  unexampled  activity  and  usefulness 
in  the  cause  of  science.     By  far  the  greater  num- 
ber of  the  societies  for  promoting  useful  knowledge 
which  now  exist  in  the  world,  were  formed  dur- 
ing the  period  under  consideration.    Among  these 
the  most  important  and  useful  are  the  Imperial 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  St.  Petersburgh;  the  Royal 
Academies  of  Stockholm,  Copenhagen,  Berlin,  and 
Lisbon;  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  the 
Royal  Irish  Academy  of  Dublin.     Besides  these, 
a  multitude  of  others  have  arisen,  under  different 
names,  for  various  purposes,  and  at  different  pe- 
riods of  the  century,   in  Great-Britain,  France, 
Italy,  Germany,  and  almost  every  literary  country 
of  Europe.     Perhaps  in  no  part  of  the  world  have 
institutions  of  this  kind  been  so  much  multiplied 
as  in  Italy;  and  next  to  her,  in  the  number  and 
activity  of  similar  associations,  we  may  estimate 
France.  •    In  the  former  there  is  scarcely  a  town 
of  any  importance  without  an  academy  or  lite- 
rary association ;  and  in  the  latter  they  are  very 
numerous. 

In  addition  to  the  societies  formed  for  promot- 
ing general  literature  and  science,  the  eighteenth 
century  is  distinguished  by  the  formation  of  many 
other  associations,  for  promoting  some  particular 
art  or  branch  of  science.  There  were  instituted, 
during  this  period,  academies  of  Painting,  of  Sculp- 
ture, of  Music,  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres, 
of  Law,  of  Medicine,  of  Arts  and  Manufacturesy 
of  Agriculture,  &c.  and,  indeed,  for  cultivating 
almost  every  particular  department  of  human 
art  and  knowledge. 

VOL.   II.  ,r 


258       Literary  and  Scientific  Associations. 

It  was  before  remarked  that  the  publications 
made  by  these  societies  and  academies,  exhibiting 
the  result  of  their  labours,  were  more  numerous, 
more  valuable,  and  more  generally  circulated, 
during  the  eighteenth  century,  than  in  any  former 
period.  They  amount  to  many  hundred  volumes, 
and  hold  an  important  place  among  the  literary 
and  scientific  productions  of  the  age. 

We  had  occasion  to  remark,  in  a  former  part 
of  this  work,  that  the  discoveries  in  Geography, 
and  the  numerous  improvements  in  Navigation, 
during  the  last  age,  had  led  to  a  great  and  unex- 
ampled increase  of  the  intercourse  of  men.  The 
same  effect  has  been  produced,  in  modern  times, 
by  the  formation  of  so  many  learned  societies,  by 
their  great  extent,  their  frequent  meetings,  their 
numerous  publications,  and  by  their  correspon- 
dence and  mutual  interchange  of  literary  honours. 
Never,  assuredly,  at  any  former  period,  were  learn- 
ed men  so  well  acquainted  with  the  labours  and 
the  characters  of  each  other,  so  free  and  mutually 
instructive  in  their  intercourse,  or  enabled  so  far 
to  combine  their  talents  and  industry  in  the  pursuit 
of  important  investigations. 

But  this  is  by  no  means  the  only  advantage  of 
these  associations.  They  may  be  reckoned  among 
the  principal  causes  of  the  superiority  of  the  mo- 
derns over  the  ancients,  especially  in  the  physical 
sciences.  They  have  kindled  a  spirit  of  emulation 
among  the  learned;  they  have  stimulated  into  ac- 
tion many  useful  talents,  by  holding  out  literary  re- 
wards; and  they  have  suggested  objects  of  inquiry, 
and  methods  of  experiment,  which  might  other- 
wise have  passed  unobserved  and  forgotten.  Such 
societies,  also,  have  furnished  useful  repositories 
for  the  observations  and  discoveries  of  the  ingeni- 
ous, and  have  thus  been  enabled  to  present  to  the 
world  many  valuable  productions,  which  would  pro- 


Literary  and  Scientific  Associations.       259 

bably  otherwise  have,  been  lost  through  the  modesty, 
the  indolence,  or  the  poverty  of  authors.  Literary 
and  scientific  associations,  moreover,  by  extend- 
ing their  honours  to  distant  countries,  bind  more 
closely  together  the  members  of  the  republic  of 
letters  in  different  quarters  of  the  globe,  and 
teach  them  to  feel  as  brethren  embarked  in  the 
same  cause.  They  may  even  be  said,  in  some 
instances,  to  have  a  great  influence  in  advancing 
national  prosperity,  and  promoting  a  spirit  of 
general  improvement.  It  is  true,  in  accounting 
for  these  facts,  other  causes  may  be  assigned  which ? 
beyond  doubt,  contributed  to  their  production; 
but  it  can  as  little  be  doubted  that  the  increased 
intercourse  and  connection  among  the  learned,  by 
means  of  the  establishment  of  academies  and  so- 
cieties, ought  to  be  considered  as  holding  a  place 
among  the  most  important  sources  of  modern  im- 
provements in  science. 

The  formation  of  literary  and  scientific  associa- 
tions in  the  United  States  began  to  take  place  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Within 
that  period  many  useful  societies  have  been  insti- 
tuted which  deserve  some  notice.  The  principal 
of  these  are  the  following — ■ 

1 .  Societies  and  Academies  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 
Of  this  class  there  are  several.  "  The  American 
Philosophical  Society,  held  at  Philadelphia,  for  pro- 
moting useful  knowledge,"  was  instituted  in  Janu- 
ary, 1769.  It  was  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
smaller  societies,  which  had  for  some  time  existed 
in  that  city,  and  has  been  ever  since  continued  on  a 
very  respectable  footing.  This  society  has  published 
four  quarto  volumes  of  its  transactions,  containing 
many  ingenious  papers  on  literature,  the  sciences, 
and  arts,  which  exhibit  American  talents  and  in- 
ry  in  a  favourable  light.  Over  this  institution 
have  successively  presided,  Benjamin  Franklin, 


260       Literary  and  Scientific  Associations. 

David RiTTENHOUSE,andTHOMAs Jefferson.  The 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  ,he\d  at  Bos- 
ton, was  established  in  May,  1780,  by  the  council 
and  house  of  representatives  of  Massachusetts, 
•c  for  promoting  the  knowledge  of  the  antiquities  of 
America,  and  of  the  natural  history  of  the  country; 
for  determining  the  uses  to  which  its  various 
natural  productions  might  be  applied;  for  encou- 
raging medicinal  discoveries,  mathematical  disqui- 
sitions, philosophical  inquiries  and  experiments, 
astronomical,  meteorological,  and  geographical  ob- 
servations, and  improvements  in  agriculture,  manu- 
factures and  commerce;  and,  in  short,  for  cultivat- 
ing every  art  and  science  which  may  tend  to  ad- 
vance the  interest,  honour,  dignity  and  happiness 
of  a  free,  independent,  and  virtuous  people."  This 
Academy  has  published  one  quarto  volume  of  its 
transactions,  and  several  parts  of  a  second,  which 
will  probably  soon  be  completed.  The  contents 
of  its  respective  publications  afford  a  very  honour- 
able specimen  of  learning  and  diligence  in  the  mem- 
bers, and  furnish  ground  for  expectations  of  still 
greater  utility.  The  gentlemen  who  have  presided 
over  this  association  are  James  Bowdoin  and 
John  Adams.  The  Connecticut  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences  was  formed  in  1799,  at  New- Haven, 
"  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  literary  and  phi- 
losophical researches  in  general,  and  particularly 
for  investigating  the  natural  history  of  that  State." 
This  society  has  existed  so  short  a  time,  that  no 
publication  of  its  proceedings  of  any  extent  could 
yet  be  reasonably  expected.  The  gentleman  first 
elected  president,  and  who  yet  remains  in  that 
office,  is  the  Rev.  Dr.  Timothy  Dwight,  presi- 
dent of  Yale  College. 

2.  Historical  Society.  The  only  association  of 
this  kind  in  the  United  States  is  in  Massachusetts. 
It  was  instituted  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1791, 


Literary  and  Scientijic  Associations.       261 

and  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Belknap,  the  honourable 
Judge  Tudor,  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  Eliot,  are  more 
entitled  to  the  honour  of  being  called  its  founders 
than  any  other  individuals/  The  design  of  this 
association  is  to  collect  and  preserve  all  documents, 
either  manuscript  or  printed,  which  have  a  ten- 
dency to  throw  light  on  the  natural,  civil,  ecclesi- 
astical, or  literary  history  of  America.  It  has  al- 
ready made  very  large  and  valuable  collections,  an 
important  portion  of  which  has  been  laid  before 
the  public/  and  it  bids  fair  to  be  one  of  the  most 
useful  institutions  in  our  country/ 

3.  Medical  Societies.  Prior  to  the  revolution, 
which  made  the  United  States  free  and  indepen- 
dent, the  physicians  of  our  country  afforded  little 
instruction  or  aid  to  each  other.  Scattered  over 
an  immense  territory;  seldom  called  to  confer  toge- 
ther and  compare  opinions,  and  little  habituated 
to  the  task  of  committing  their  observations  to 
writing,  each  was  compelled  to  proceed  almost 

p  Dr.  Belknap,  whose  taste  for  historical  researches  is  well  known, 
and  who  has  rendered  such  important  service  to  the  interests  of  American 
history,  first  urged  the  adoption  of  some  plan  for  collecting  and  preserving 
the  numerous  historical  documents,  relating  to  our  country,  and  especially 
tp  New-England,  which  were  widely  scattered,  and  rapidly  failing  a  prey 
to  the  destroying  hand  of  time.  He  was  zealously  seconded  by  Judge 
Tudor,  who  first  proposed  the  formation  of  a  society  for  this  purpose,  and 
by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Eliot,  who  engaged  with  ardour  in  the  plan,  and  has 
been  since  one  of  the  most  active  and  useful  members  of  the  institution. 
These  gentlemen  were  soon  joined,  and  ably  assisted  by  the  Rev.  Drs. 
Thatcher  and  Freeman,  by  the  honourable  Judges  Sullivan  and 
Minot,  Mr.  Winthrop,  and  several  others,  who  were  members  of  the 
association  when  first  organized. 

r  The  historical  documents  published  by  the  Society  amount  to  seven 
octavo  volumes. 

s  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  publications  made  by  this  Society  relate 
to  the  history  of  New-England.  This  has  arisen,  not  from  any  blanieable 
partiality  of  the  resident  members  to  the  history  of  their  own  country  ;  but 
from  the  negligence  of  the  corresponding  members  to  make  communications 
respecting  the  several  States  to  which  they  belong.  It  is  earnestly  to  be 
wished,  either  that  gentlemen  of  a  literary  character  in  different  parts  of 
the  United  States  would  consider  the  Society  in  Boston  as  a  national  one, 
and  exert  themselves  to  render  it  more  extensively  useful;  or,  without  de- 
lay, form  independent  societies  for  the  same  purpose,  to  act  in  co-operation 
with  the  parent  society. 


262       Literary  and  Scientific  Associations. 

unassisted  and  alone.  Soon  after  the  confusion 
and  devastation  of  war  had  given  way  to  the  arts 
of  peace,  attempts  began  to  be  made  to  remedy 
this  serious  evil.  Associations  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  medical  science  were  soon  formed,  not 
only  in  Philadelphia,  which  had  been  for  some 
years  the  seat  of  a  medical  school,  but  in  almost 
every  State  in  the  union.  Few  of  these  societies 
have  made  very  large  or  important  publications; 
but  they  have  produced  many  lasting  advantages 
to  the  individuals  composing  them,  and  to  the 
interests  of  the  healing  art.  They  have  brought 
physicians  to  be  acquainted  with  each  other.  They 
have  collected  a  large  mass  of  facts,  hints,  obser- 
vations and  inquiries,  which  if  not  always  given  to 
the  world,  constitute  a  source  of  improvement  to 
the  associates  themselves.  They  have  instituted 
annual  orations,  which,  in  various  ways,  tend  to 
promote  their  primary  object.  They  have  issued 
prize  questions,  and  bestowed  premiums,  which 
awaken  dormant  powers,  and  excite  a  laudable 
spirit  of  emulation.  In  a  word,  they  have  contri- 
buted to  raise  the  practice  of  medicine  in  our  coun- 
try from  a  selfish  and  sordid  trade,  to  a  liberal,  dig- 
nified, and  enlightened  profession. 

4.  Agricultural  Societies.  Associations  for  the 
promotion  of  agriculture,  and  the  auxiliary  arts 
and  sciences,  while  they  have  been  multiplied 
in  every  part  of  the  scientific  world,  have  also, 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century,  become 
numerous  in  America.  There  is  scarcely  a  State  in 
the  Union  in  which  an  institution  of  this  kind  has  not- 
been  established,  and  in  some  of  the  States  there  are 
more  than  one.  The  most  conspicuous  and  active 
of  these  associations  are  those  established  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, New-York,  and  Pennsylvania.  That 
in  New-York,  denominated  the  Society  for  pro- 
moting Agriculture,  Arts  and  Manufactures, 


Literary  and  Scientific  Associations.       263 

been  particularly  distinguished,  and,  it  is  believed, 
is  the  only  one  of  this  nature  in  the  United  States 
which  has  made  a  regular  publication  of  its  pro- 
ceedings, and  of  the  principal  memoirs  communi- 
cated by  its  members/  The  useful  effects  of  these 
institutions  are  undeniably  great,  in  various  parts 
of  our  country.  They  have  excited  a  spirit  of  in- 
quiry, experiment  and  diligence  in  agricultural 
pursuits,  among  a  considerable  portion  of  our 
citizens;  they  have  contributed  to  raise  the  dig- 
nity and  importance  of  agriculture  in  the  popular 
opinion ;  they  have  collected  facts  and  doctrines, 
from  different  districts,  for  more  full  trial  and  satis- 
factory comparison ;  and  if  they  have  encouraged 
in  any  cases  a  disposition  for  speculative  and  visi- 
onary farming,  they  have  promoted,  in  a  still  greater 
degree,  practical  and  valuable  improvements. 

The  literary  and  scientific  associations  of  the 
eighteenth  century  differed  considerably  from  those 
which  were  formed  in  preceding  times.  Besides 
being  more  numerous,  they  were  also  more  exten- 
sive in  their  plan,  and  embraced  a  greater  number 
of  distant  and  foreign  associates;  they  directed 
more  of  their  attention  to  the  physical  sciences,  and 
rendered  the  mode  of  inquiry  by  experiment  more 
general  and  more  accurate;  and,  finally,  they  were 
more  active  in  their  exertions,  kept  more  heads 
and  hands  at  work,  and  engaged  more  of  the  public 
attention,  than  the  societies  of  preceding  times. 


t  The  Agricultural  Society  of  Massachutetts  has  made,  it  is  believed,  several 
jmall  publications ;  but  the  author  has  not  been  so  fortunate  as  to  see  them, 
or  to  be  particularly  informed  of  their  contents. 


(     264     ) 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


ENCYCLOPAEDIAS  AND  SCIENTIFIC   DICTIONARIES. 

ALMOST  all  the  works  of  this  kind  which  exist 
are  productions  of  the  last  age.  The  first  attempt 
of  which  we  read,  to  give  a  distinct  and  metho- 
dical view  of  all  arts  and  sciences,  in  a  series  of 
volumes,  was  that  by  Avicenna,  the  great  Ara- 
bian philosopher  and  physician,  who  flourished  in 
the  eleventh  century.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one, 
as  we  are  told,  he  conceived  the  bold  design  of  in- 
corporating into  one  work  all  the  parts  of  human 
knowledge  then  studied;  and,  in  pursuance  of  this 
plan,  compiled  a  real  Encyclopedia,  in  twenty 
volumes,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  The 
Utility  of  Utilities.  The  art  of  printing,  however, 
being  yet  unknown,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that 
his  work  had  any  considerable  circulation,  or 
that  it  contributed  much  to  the  promotion  of 
knowledge. 

The  next  publication  of  this  kind  worthy  of 
notice  is  the  Margarita  Philosophica,  by  Reis- 
chius,  a  learned  German,  printed  at  Strasburgh, 
in  1509.  About  the  same  time  with  Reischius 
flourished  Andrew  Matthew  Acquaviva,  Duke 
of  Alti  and  Teramo,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples^ 
who  formed  a  plan  of  an  universal  dictionary  of 
arts  and  sciences,  to  which  he  first  gave  the  name 
of  an  Encyclopedia,  which  has  been  since  generally 
employed  to  designate  works  of  this  class.  After 
Acquaviva,  no  literary  labourer  seems  to  have 
engaged  in  so  hardy  an  enterprize,  until  Alste- 


Encyclopedias  and  Scientific  Dictionaries.  26* 

dius,  a  German  protestant  divine,  who,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  published  an 
Encyclopaedia,  which  was  highly  esteemed,  even 
among  catholics.  It  was  printed  at  Lyons,  and 
had  much  circulation  over  a  considerable  part 
of  the  continent  of  Europe.  These  appear  to  have 
been  the  most  important,  if  not  the  whole  of  the 
works  of  this  kind  which  appeared  prior  to  the 
eighteenth  century;  for  the  Dictionaries  of  Bayle, 
and  Moreri,  published  towards  the  close  of  the 
preceding  age,  though  works  of  great  labour  and 
learning,  yet  being  chiefly  of  a  biographical  and 
historical  nature,  can  scarcely  have  a  place  assigned 
them,  with  propriety,  in  the  present  list. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,* 
Dr.  John  Harris,  an  English  clergyman,  of  dis- 
tinguished erudition,  published  his  Lexicon  Tech- 
nicam,  a  work  in  two  volumes  folio,  embracing  a 
great  variety  of  knowledge,  as  it  then  stood,  and, 
at  that  period,  highly  instructive  and  much  esteem- 
ed. The  next  compilation  of  this  kind  was  that 
produced  by  Mr.  Ephraim  Chambers,  also  of 
Great-Britain,  which  first  appeared  in  1728,  in 
two  volumes  folio,  and  was  doubtless  much  supe- 
rior to  all  that  had  gone  before  it.  Chambers 
denominated  his  work  a  Cyclopedia.  It  was  the 
result  of  many  years  intense  application  to  study> 
and  was  received  by  the  public  in  the  most  favour- 
able manner.  It  went  through  a  number  of  edi- 
tions in  the  native  country  of  its  author,  within  a 
few  years  after  its  first  appearance;  was  soon 
translated  into  the  Italian  language,  and  had  many 
honours  heaped  upon  it  by  the  learned  of  those 
times.  This  work  has  been  since  enlarged  and 
printed  in  four  volumes  folio,  by  Dr.  Rees,  and 
in  this  improved  form  is  yet  much  valued. 


*  It  is  believed  that  Dr.  Harris's  work  was  first  published  in  1704, 
VOL.  II.  aM 


k&6  Encyclopedias  and  Scientific  Dictionaries. 

The  next  in  order  was  a  Dictionary  of  Arts  and 
Trades,  published  by  a  society  in  France,  arid  em- 
bracing an  amount  of  information  on  all  mecha- 
nical subjects,  more  extensive  and  curious  than 
had  ever  before  been  collected.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  celebrated  French  Encyclopedic,  of 
which  Messrs.  D'Alembert  and  Diderot  were 
the  principal  conductors,  aided  by  a  number  of 
their  learned  countrymen.  It  is  probable  that 
they  were  prompted  to  this  undertaking  by  the 
fame  and  success  of  Mr.  Chambers's  work;  and 
also  by  a  premeditated  and  systematic  desigrt  to: 
throw  all  possible  odium  on  revealed  religion. 
This  great  compilation  was  begun  in  1752,  and 
brought  to  a  close  about  fifteen  or  twenty  years 
afterwards,  in  thirty-three  folio  volumes.  A  lead- 
ing feature  of  the  Encyclopedia  is  the  encourage- 
ment which  it  artfully  gives  throughout  to  the 
most  impious  infidelity;  and  though  much  valuable 
science  is  undoubtedly  diffused  through  its  pages, 
yet  it  is  so  contaminated  with  the  mixture  of  licen- 
tious principles  in  morals  and  religion,  that  no- 
thing but  its  great  voluminousness  prevents  it  from 
being  one  of  the  most  pernicious  works  that  ever 
issued  from  the  press. 

After  the  appearance  of  the  French  Encyclope^ 
die,  Baron  Bielfeld,  of  Germany,  published  a 
work  which  he  called  The  Elements  of  Universal 
Erudition.  This  compilation,  however,  is  com- 
paratively little  known,  and  is  certainly  inferior 
to  many  made  both  before  and  since.  About  the 
^ear  1760,  a  bookseller,  by  the  name  of  Owen, 
published  a  kind  of  Encyclopaedia,  in  three  very 
large  octavo  volumes.  This  work,  though  less 
full  on  many  subjects  than  some  that  had  gone 
before  it,  yet  contained  much  useful  information, 
the  mode  of  exhibiting  which  has  been  generally 
applauded.     In  1764  appeared  The  Complete  Die- 


Encyclopedias  and  Scientific  Dictionaries.  267 

tionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  in  three  volumes  folio, 
by  the  Rev.  Henry  Temple  Croker,  and  others. 
This  work,  though,  in  many  respects,  worthy  of 
public  patronage,  attracted  but  little  attention, 
and  gained  but  a  small  share  of  reputation. 

About  the  year  1773  was  published,  in  Edin- 
burgh, the  Encyclopedia  Britatinica,  in  three 
volumes  quarto,  of  which  the  principal  editor  was 
Mr.  Colin  Mac  Farquhar,  assisted  by  a  num- 
ber of  the  learned  men  around  him.  A  second 
edition  of  the  same  work  was  completed  in  1783, 
enlarged  to  ten  volumes  quarto,  executed  chiefly 
by  the  same  persons  who  had  compiled  the  former 
edition.  A  third  impression,  still  under  the  same 
title,  was  undertaken  in  1789,  with  the  aid  of  a 
number  of  new  literary  labourers,  and  completed 
in  1797,  in  eighteen  quarto  volumes.  This  work 
deserves  to  be  highly  commended  on  various  ac- 
counts. The  friendly  aspect  which  it  bears,  in  gene- 
ral, towards  religion  and  good  morals,  is  entitled  to 
much  approbation.  And  though,  on  some  subjects, 
it  is  far  from  containing  the  same  depth  and  extent 
of  scientific  research  with  the  French  Encyclo^ 
pedie,  yet  it  presents  a  rich  variety  of  knowledge, 
and,  in  the  general  usefulness  of  its  tendency,  far 
exceeds  that  celebrated  performance. 

From  the  last  edition  of  the  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
iannica,  an  American  impression  has  been  given 
by  Mr.  Thomas  Dobson,  a  respectable  printer  and 
bookseller  of  Philadelphia,  who,  with  a  degree  of 
zeal  and  enterprize  then  altogether  unrivalled  in 
the  United  States,  soon  after  the  commencement  of 
the  publication  in  Britain,  announced  his  intention 
of  giving  it  to  the  American  public  through  the 
medium  of  his  own  press.  His  plan  has  been  ex- 
ecuted in  a  manner  equally  honourable  to  himself 
and  his  patrons;  and  his  edition,  on  account  of 
many  valuable  additions  and  corrections,  deserves 


268  Encyclopedias  and  Scientific  Dictionaries. 

to  be  considered  as  decidedly  superior  to  that  from 
which  the  greater  part  of  it  was  copied." 

In  1783  some  of  the  literati  of  France,  not  satis- 
fied either  with  the  plan  or  the  execution  of  the 
grand  Encyclopedic,  which  had  attracted  so  much  of 
thepublic  attention, commenced  a  new  work  under 
the  title  of  the  Encyclopedic  Methodique.  This 
has  been,  with  some  propriety,  called  a  Dictionary 
of  Dictionaries.  It  is  entirely  on  a  newr  plan,  and 
was  lately  finished,  having  reached  the  wonderful 
extent  of  two  hundred  volumes  in  quarto.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  this  last  work,  exe- 
cuted by  many  of  the  persons  who  were  engaged 
in  the  preceding,  bears,  like  that,  an  anti-religious 
complexion;  and  that,  while  it  displays  much 
genius,  learning,  industry,  and  perseverance,  its 
general  tendency  is  highly  unfavourable  to  the 
interests  of  virtue  and  piety. 

Some  years  before  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  a  Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences  was 
undertaken  by  Varrentrapp  and  Wenner,  learn- 
ed and  enterprizing  booksellers  at  Frankfort,  in 
Germany.  This  work,  under  the  title  of  AUgemeine 
Encyclopedic,  der  Kiinste  und  Wisse?ischafte?i,  has 
already  reached  to  a  considerable  extent,  but  is 
not  yet  completed.  It  has  been  said,  by  persons 
acquainted  with  the  German  language,  to  be,  on 
the  whole,  so  far  as  it  has  gone,  the  best  Encyclo- 
pedia yet  published. 

Several  other  compilations,  intended  to  embrace 
the  circle  of  arts  and  sciences,  were  made  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Europe,  in  the  course  of  the  last 
century.  Some  of  these  were  translations  or 
abridgements  of  those  already  mentioned,  while 
others  had  better  claims  to  originality.     But  too 

u  Besides  other  new  matter,  Mr.  Dobson's  edition  contains  much  im^ 
portant  information  respecting  the  United  States  not  contained  in  the  work, 
as  it  came  from  the  British  press. 


Encyclopedias  and  Scientific  Dictionaries.  269 

little  is  known  of  those  which  belong  to  either 
class,  to  undertake  any  detailed  account  of  their 
characters,  or  even  of  their  titles.^ 

It  deserves  also  to  be  noticed,  that  the  last  age 
produced  an  unprecedented  number  of  systematic 
works  on  particular  sciences,  exhibited  in  the  form 
of  dictionaries,  and  having  the  several  parts  dis- 
posed according  to  alphabetical  arrangement.  Of 
these  the  number  is  too  great  to  be  recounted.  As 
a  specimen,  it  may  be  observed,  that  we  have  dic- 
tionaries of  Agriculture, by  several  associations  and 
individuals;  of  Gardening,  by  Miller,  Mawe, 
and  others;  of  Trade  and  Commerce,  by  Rolt, 
Saver  y,  and  Postlethwaite;  of  Law,  by  Jacobs; 
of  Mathematics,  by  Hutton;  of  Chemistry,  by 
Macquer  and  Nicholson;  of  Mineralogy,  by 
Rinman;  of  Botany,  by  Martyn;  and  of  Paint- 
ing, Music,  &c.  by  various  persons  of  learning  and 
taste,  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

That  these  numerous  and  extensive  collections 
of  the  different  branches  of  human  knowledge  have 
had  a  considerable  influence  on  the  literary  and 
scientific  character  of  the  age,  will  scarcely  be 
questioned.  They  have  contributed  to  render 
modern  erudition  multifarious  rather  than  deep. 
By  abridging  the  labour  of  the  reader  they  have 
diminished  his  industry.  But  they  have  been  at- 
tended, at  the  same  time,  with  considerable  advant- 
ages. To  those  residing  at  a  distance  from  large 
libraries,  and  other  repositories  of  science,  they 

tu  The  English  Encyclopedia,  begun  a  few  years  ago  by  Dr.  Gregory 
and  others,  and  intended  to  be  comprized  in  eight  or  nine  volumes  4to. 
was  nearly  concluded  at  the  close  of  the  century.  The  Encyclopedia  Lox- 
dinensiS)begun  near  the  expiration  of  the  century,  by  Dr.  Rees,  and  other 
learned  men,  is  now  publishing.  The  Encyclopedia  Perthensis,  which  has 
been  for  several  years  printing  in  the  city  of  Perth,  in  North-Britain, 
is  also  still  unfinished;  as  is  an  Encyclopedia  publishing  by  Mr.  John 
Low,  an  enterprizing  bookseller  in  the  city  of  New- York,  in  which 
considerable  progress  is  made,  and  which  it  is  expected  will  form  six  quarto 
yolumes. 


270  Education. 

have  furnished  a  most  instructive  epitome  of  know- 
ledge. They  have  thus  contributed  to  enlarge  the 
mind,  and  to  show  the  connection  between  the 
several  objects  of  study;  and  though  they  are  far 
from  presenting  a  sufficiently  minute  and  detailed 
view  of  each  of  the  various  subjects  of  which  they 
treat;  yet,  to  general  readers,  they  give  more  infor- 
mation than  would  probably  have  been  gained 
without  them;  and  to  readers  who  wish  to  investi- 
gate subjects  more  deeply,  they  serve  as  an  index 
to  more  abundant  sources  of  information. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

EDUCATION. 

EDUCATION  has  always  been  considered  among 
the  most  difficult  and  important  of  those  duties 
which  are  intrusted  to  man.  Corresponding  with 
its  arduous  and  interesting  nature  have  been  the 
numerous  plans  to  facilitate  its  accomplishment,  or 
to  improve  its  methods.  Of  these  plans  the  eigh- 
teenth century  was  eminently  productive,  as  no  age 
ever  so  much  abounded  in  learned  and  ingenious 
works  on  this  subject;  but  the  real  improvements 
to  which  the  period  in  question  has  given  birth  in 
the  business  of  education,  are  by  no  means  of  that 
radical  kind  which  might  have  been  expected  by 
the  sanguine,  from  the  progress  of  society  in  other 
arts  and  sciences.  Still,  however,  the  last  age 
produced  some  events  and  revolutions,  with  regard 
to  this  subject,  which  demand  our  notice  in  the 
present  brief  review. 

Of  the  numerous  treatises  on  the  subject  of 
Education,  which  were  presented  to  the  public  in 


Education.  271 

the  course  of  the  last  age,  there  are  few  entitled 
to  particular  attention.  Among  these,  perhaps, 
the  celebrated  work  of  Rousseau,  under  the  title 
of  Emilius,  is  most  extensively  known.  This  sin- 
gular production  undoubtedly  contains  some  just 
reasoning,  many  excellent  precepts,  and  not  a  few 
passages  of  unrivalled  eloquence.  But  it  seems  to 
be  now  generally  agreed  by  sober,  reflectingjudges, 
that  his  system  is  neither  moral  in  its  tendency,  nor 
practicable  in  its  application.  If  the  author  ex- 
Celled  most  other  men  in  genius,  he  certainly  had 
little  claim  either  to  purity  of  character,  or  real 
wisdom. 

Besides  this  work,  a  few  others  are  worthy  of 
particular  notice ;  some  of  which,  if  they  have  less 
claim  to  ingenuity  than  the  celebrated  production 
of  Rousseau,  are  more  judicious,  practical,  and 
conducive  to  the  happiness  of  youth.  The  Method 
of  studying  and  teaching  the  Belles  Lettres,  by  M. 
Rollin,  has  received  much  attention  and  general 
applause,  and  is  pre-eminently  favourable  to  the 
interests  of  virtue  and  piety.  The  Plan  of  a  Li- 
beral Education^  by  Dr.  Vicesimus  Knox,  is  also 
the  production  of  a  learned  and  ingenious  man,  and 
may  be  ranked  among  the  best  modern  treatises 
on  this  subject.  The  Eleme?itar-Werk,  by  Basedow, 
of  Germany,  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  influential 
and  useful  works  on  education  that  the  age  pro- 
duced. Much  praise  has  also  been  bestowed  on 
the  Neuen  Emit  of  Professor  Feder,  of  Gottingen, 
which  still  continues  to  be  held  in  esteem  in  the 
author's  own  country/     Towards  the  close  of  the 

*  The  author  has  no  acquaintance  with  the  works  of  Basedow  or  Fe- 
»er.  This  account  of  them  is  taken  from  a  learned  and  interesting  His- 
tor'ual  Atcount  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Literature  in  Germany,  published 
in  the  German  Museum  of  London,  and  said  to  be  drawn  up  by  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Will,  lately  of  London,  at  present  minister  of  the  German  Calvinwt 
Church  in  the  city  of  New- York. 


272  Education. 

century  was  published  a  work  entitled  Lectures  on 
Education,  by  David  Williams,  which,  though 
it  manifests  considerable  talents  and  erudition,  is 
decidedly  unfriendly  to  religion,  and  consequently 
to  genuine  virtue.  To  these  may  be  added,  the 
Theatre  of  Education,  by  Madame  Genlis;  a 
treatise  on  Practical  Education,  by  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Edgeworth;  and  smaller  works,  on  the  same 
subject,  by  Miss  Wakefield  and  Miss  Hamil- 
ton, both  of  Great-Britain;  all  of  which,  with 
various  kinds  and  degrees  of  merit,  have  been  much 
read  and  esteemed. 

The  eighteenth  century  produced  a  remarkable 
revolution  with  respect  to  the  objects  of  study  m 
the  education  of  youth.  These  are  now  more  ac- 
commodated to  the  different  employments  for 
which  the  pupils  are  intended  than  in  former 
times.  Education,  during  this  period,  has  been 
more  than  ever  divested  of  its  scholastic  form,  and 
rendered  more  conducive  to  the  useful  purposes 
of  life.  The  study  of  the  dead  languages  has  been 
gradually  declining  throughout  the  age  under  re- 
view, and  scientific  and  literary  pursuits  of  a  more 
practical  nature  taking  their  place.  Instead  of 
spending  eight  or  ten  years,  as  formerly,  in  the 
acquisition  of  Latin  and  Greek  words  and  rules> 
youth  are  now  more  liberally  instructed  in  the 
physical  sciences,  in  belles  lettres,  in  modern  Ian- 
guages,  in  history,  in  geography,  and  generally  in 
those  branches  of  knowledge  which  are  calculated 
to  fit  them  for  action,  as  well  as  speculation .  Though 
the  change  in  this  respect  has  been  carried  to  an  ex- 
treme; though  the  disposition  discovered  by  many 
instructors,  during  the  last  fifty  years,  to  discard  en- 
tirely from  among  the  objects  of  study,therich  stores 
of  ancient  literature,  may  be  pronounced  un^ 
friendly  to  true  taste  and  sound  learning;  yet  the 


Education.  21% 

revolution  which  has  been  mentioned  may  be  con- 
sidered, in  general,  as  a  real  improvement. 

Another  obvious  revolution  which  the  last  age 
has  produced  in  the  business  of  education,  is  re- 
moving a  large  portion  of  that  constraint  and  ser- 
vility, and  of  those  monkish  habits,  which  were 
formerly  connected  with  the  diligent  pursuit  of 
knowledge,  and  considered  a  necessary  part  of  a 
system  of  study.     Modern  academic  discipline  is 
much  less  rigid  than  it  was  a  century  ago.     More 
scope  is  given  to  the  natural  spirit  and  tendencies 
of  the  youthful  mind.  The  paths  of  instruction  are 
more  diversified,  and  more  strewed  with  flowers. 
In  a  word,  the  labour  of  youthful  study,  formerly 
fashionable,  has,  in  a  great  measure,  ceased  to 
exist.     This  has  arisen  from  several  causes;  from 
the  growth  of  luxury  and  dissipation,  which  are 
always  unfavourable  to  sound  erudition ;  from  the 
multiplication  of  helps  and  abridgements,  to   be 
hereafter  mentioned,  which,  while  they  lessen  the 
toil  of  the   student,    deceive  him,    by  promising 
greater  acquisitions  than  he  can  gain  from  them; 
and  especially    from   the    plans  of  education   in 
modern  times  being  so  much  extended,  and  the 
objects  of  study  so  greatly  multiplied,  as  to  render 
the  wonted  attention  to  each  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible.    Hence  the  greater  number  of  scholars, 
at  the  present  day,  are  more  remarkable  fox  variety 
than  depth  of  learning;  and  have  generally  con- 
tented themselves  with  walking  lightly  over  the 
fields,  and  plucking  the  flowers  of  literature  and 
science,  instead  of  digging  deeply,  and  with  un- 
wearied patience,  to  gain  the  recondite  treasures 
of  knowledge/ 


y  It  has  been  asserted,  by  good  judges,  and  probably  with  truth,  that 
#ne  of  the  principal  reasons  to  be  assigned  for  the  comparative  superficiality 
of  modern  classical  learning,  even  in  the  best  seminaries,  is  the  increased 
use  of  translations,  particularly  within  the  last  sixty  or  seventy  yean.     It 

VOL.   II.  zN 


274  Education. 

A  further  circumstance,  in  some  degree  pectin 
liar  to  modern  education,  and  which,  no  doubt, 
produces  a  considerable  effect,  is  the  early  age  at 
which  students  are  admitted  into  the  higher  semi- 
naries of  learning,  and,  as  a  necessary  consequence, 
their  premature  entrance  into  the  world.  Lord 
Bacon  somewhere  remarks,  that  it  was  a  defect 
in  the  plans  of  education,  in  his  day,  that  students 
were  introduced  at  too  early  an  age  to  the  more 
abstruse  and  grave  parts  of  their  philosophic  stu- 
dies. This  remark,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  may 
be  applied  to  the  general  period  of  beginning  the 
academic  course.  The  universities  and  colleges 
of  modern  times,  especially  in  the  United  States, 
are  filled  with  children,  who  are  unable  either 
suitably  to  appreciate  the  privileges  they  enjoy, 
or  so  much  to  profit  by  them,  as  at  a  more  mature 
period  of  life.  If  these  higher  seminaries  be  in- 
tended, as  they  commonly  are,  to  complete  the 
education,  then  to  send  pupils  to  them  before  they 
have  emerged  from  the  state  of  childhood  is  al- 
together unwise.  That  this  circumstance  has  an 
unfavourable  influence  on  the  dignity  and  gene- 
ral success  of  a  course  of  public  instruction  can 
scarcely  be  doubted.  That  it  should  co-operate 
with  other  causes  to  render  the  number  of  superfi- 
cial scholars  greater  than  they  would  otherwise 
be,  seems  to  be  an  unavoidable  consequence;  and 
that  it  tends  to  diminish  the  subordination  and  the 
regularity  of  modern  academic  systems,  experience 
abundantly  demonstrates. 

The  last  century  also  produced  considerable  im- 
provements in  the  means  of  instruction.     These 


is  certain  that  helps  of  this  kind,  to  abridge  the  toil  of  the  indolent  and 
careless,  never  before  had  so  general  a  circulation  ;  and  it  is  proverbially 
true,  that  acquisitions  made  by  means  of  long  and  patient  labour,  are  more 
deeply  impressed  on  the  mind,  longer  retained,  and  usually  held  in  higher 
.-stimatioii,  than  those  which  cost  but  little  time  and  pains. 


Education.  215 

are  of  various  kinds,  and  deserve  our  particular  at- 
tention, in  estimating  the  progress  of  literature 
during  the  period  under  consideration. 

The  first  circumstance  deserving  of  notice  unde.r 
this  head,  is  the  great  multiplication  of  Seminaries 
of  learning,  in  the  course  of  the  last  age.  This  is  a 
most  interesting  feature  in  the  period  which  we 
are  endeavouring  to  delineate.  Institutions  for 
the  purpose  of  instruction,  from  universities  down 
to  the  smallest  schools,  were  never  half,  perhaps 
not  a  tenth  part,  so  numerous  as  at  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  In  every  portion  of  the 
civilized  world  they  have  increased  to  an  astonish- 
ing amount;  they  have  brought  the  means  of  edu- 
cation to  almost  every  door;  and,  with  opportuni- 
ties, have  presented  excitements  to  the  acquisition 
of  knowledge  before  unknown. 

Charity  Schools,  if  not  first  established,  were 
greatly  multiplied  during  this  century;  and,  per- 
haps, deserve  to  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
useful  plans  of  public  beneficence  to  which  the 
age  gave  rise.  These  have  been  numerous  for 
many  years,  in  several  countries  of  Europe;  but 
probably  in  no  part  of  the  world  have  so  large  a 
number  been  established,  and  on  a  footing  so  li- 
beral, as  in  Great-Britain.  Institutions  of  this  kind 
have  also  been,  for  some  time,  common  and  highly 
useful  in  the  United  States. 

The  establishment  of  Sunday  Schools  deserves  to 
be  mentioned  as  a  further  improvement  of  modern 
times.  This  is  an  excellent  plan  for  disseminating 
the  elements  of  useful  knowledge  among  the  more 
laborious  and  indigent  portions  of  society;  and 
bids  fair  to  be  generally  adopted  throughout  the 
christian  world. 

The  last  age  also  abounded,  beyond  all  prece- 
dent, in  popular  works,  for  facilitating  and  im- 
proving the  education  of  youth.     Of  this  kind  are 


276  Education. 

the  numerous  translations,  compends  and  abridge- 
ments, which  modern  instructors  have  produced. 
Scarcely  a  department  of  art,  science,  or  taste, 
can  be  mentioned  in  which  numerous  works  of 
this  nature  have  not  been  furnished  by  the  friends 
of  youth.  To  the  same  class  also  belong  the  moral 
tales,  the  histories,  adventures,  and  selections,  of 
which  a  few  years  past  have  produced  an  un- 
exampled number  and  variety.  Some  of  these 
performances  have  been  planned  with  great  wis- 
dom, and  executed  with  great  felicity;  and  are 
eminently  suited  to  attract  the  youthful  mind,  to 
direct  and  strengthen  its  growing  powers,  to  beget 
a  taste  for  the  sciences,  and  to  cultivate  the  best 
principles  of  the  heart.  Of  many  others,  indeed, 
a  very  different  character  must  be  given;  but  it  is 
certain,  that  parents  and  teachers  were  never  be- 
fore presented  with  so  rich  a  variety  of  helps,  or  so 
ample  a  field  of  choice,  in  works  of  this  nature,  as 
during  the  last  thirty  years  of  the  period  under  re- 
view. 

Among  the  many  writers  and  compilers  to  whom 
the  public  are  indebted  for  their  labours  in  this 
important  field,  it  is  difficult  to  make  a  selection  of 
those  who  are  most  entitled  to  praise.  Of  this  num- 
ber are,  Mrs.  Trimmer,  Mrs.  Barbauld,  Miss 
C.  Smith,  Miss  Hannah  More,  Miss  Wake- 
field, Mr.  Day,  and  Dr.  Mavor,  of  Great-Bri- 
tain; Madame  Genlis,  Abbe  Gaultier,  M.  de 
Beaumont,  and  M.  Berquin, of  France;  Messrs. 
Basedow,  Campe,  Salzman,  and  Von  Rochow, 
of  Germany;  andMr.LiNDLEY  Murray, and  Mr. 
Noah  Webster,  of  our  own  country.  To  say 
that  the  performances  of  all  these  have  commanded 
much  attention,  and  that  those  of  several  of  thern 
have  been  eminently  and  extensively  useful, 
would  be  to  describe  their  merits  in  a  very  im- 
perfect manner. 


Education.  Ill 

From  this  multiplication  of  the  means  zx\&  faci- 
lities of  education  we  may  account  for  the  fact, 
that  during  the  last  century  the  advantages  of  edu- 
cation were  more  extensively  diffused  through  the 
different  grades  of  society  than  in  any  former  age. 
It  may  safely  be  asserted,  that  there  never  was  a 
period  in  which  the  elements  of  useful  knowledge 
were  so  common  and  popular  as  during  that  which 
is  under  review.  In  all  preceding  stages  of  human 
improvement,  knowledge  was  possessed  by  few. 
Before  the  invention  of  printing,  indeed,  the  ob- 
stacles in  the  way  of  a  general  diffusion  of  informa- 
tion were  numerous,  and  almost  insurmountable; 
and  even  with  the  advantage  of  that  invention,  it 
was,  in  a  great  measure,  confined  to  the  opulent, 
until  within  the  last  hundred  years.  During  this 
period,  the  great  increase  in  the  number  of  semi- 
naries of  learning;  the  wonderful  multiplication  of 
circulating  and  other  libraries  ;  the  growing  prac- 
tice of  divesting  the  most  important  parts  of  know- 
ledge of  their  scholastic  dress,  and  detaching  them 
from  the  envelopments  of  dead  languages;  with 
various  other  considerations,  have  all  conspired  to 
extend  the  advantages  of  education,  and  to  render 
the  elements  of  useful  knowledge  more  cheap  and 
common  than  ever  before. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
the  physical  education  of  youth  became  an  object 
of  more  particular  attention  than  it  was  in  any  for- 
mer period.  The  considerations  of  bodily  health 
and  vigour  were  by  no  means  forgotten  in  the  most 
ancient  systems  of  education  with  which  we  are 
acquainted.  Nay,  it  may  be  asserted,  that,  in 
practice,  the  ancients  succeeded  much  betrer  than 
the  moderns,  in  rearing  robust  and  vigorous  chil- 
dren. But  they  attended  less  to  theory  than  prac- 
tice; they  attained  the  end  without  having  just  phi- 
losophical ideas  respecting  the  means;   and  some- 


273  Education, 

times  indeed  by  methods  which  neither  the  habits 
nor  opinions  of  modern  nations  would  admit.  But 
the  eighteenth  century  gave  bir,th  to  more  specu- 
lation and  writing  on  this  subject  than  any  former 
age  could  boast.  The  philosophy  of  physical  edu- 
cation has  been  more  studied,  discussed  and  un- 
derstood. And  though  the  luxury,  the  various  pre- 
mature indulgences,  and  the  general  habits  of  the 
youth  at  the  present  day,  may  be  considered  as  pe- 
culiarly unfriendly  to  health  and  long  life,  yet  it  is 
certain,  that  within  a  few  years  past  the  inquiries 
on  this  subject,  and  the  theoretical  and  practical 
works  in  relation  to  it  published,  have  been  more 
numerous,  more  enlightened,  and  more  conducive, 
so  far  as  reduced  to  practice,  to  the  union  ofhealth> 
delicacy  and  virtue,  than  the  wisdom  of  former 
ages  produced.2 

But,  perhaps,  one  of  the  most  striking  peculi- 
arities of  the  eighteenth  century,  on  the  score  of 
education,  is  the  change  of  opinion  gradually  in- 
troduced into  society,  respecting  the  importance, 
capacity,  and  dignity  of  the  Female  Sex,  and  the 
consequent  changes  in  the  objects,  mode  and 
extent  of  their  instruction.  It  is  much  less  than 
a  hundred  years  since  female  education  was  lament- 
ably, and  upon  principle,  neglected,  throughout 
the  civilized  world.  Until  the  age  under  review, 
cc  no  nation,  ancient  or  modern,  esteemed  it  an  ob- 
ject of  public  importance ;  no  philosopher  or  legis- 
lator interwove  it  with  his  system  of  general  in- 
struction; nor  did  any  writer  deem  it  a  subject 
worthy  of  full  and  serious  discussion.     Many  sys? 

z  Some  of  the  methods  employed  by  the  ancients,  for  promoting  the 
expansion,  vigour,  and  longevity  of  the  human  body,  were  by  no  means 
consistent  with  delicacy  or  virtue,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  female  sex. 
In  modern  times,  by  more  carefully  studying,  and  more  generally  under- 
standing the  philosophy  of  diet,  exercise,  air,  dress,  and  general  regimen, 
the  improvers  of  physical  education  have  been  enabled  to  do  much  in  a, 
way  altogether  consistent  both  with  decorum  and  pure  morals. 


Education.  279 

terns  of  instruction  have  been  adopted  for  the  other 
sex,  various  as  the  countries,  the  government,  the 
religion,  the  climate,  and  even  as  the  caprices  of 
the  writers,  who,  at  different  periods,  have  under- 
taken to  compose  them.  But,  by  a  strange  fata- 
lity, women  have  been  almost  wholly  omitted  in 
the  account,  as  if  they  were  not  gifted  with  reason 
and  understanding,  but  were  only  to  be  valued  for 
the  elegance  of  their  manners,  the  symmetry  of  their 
forms,  and  the  power  of  their  blandishments."  In 
the  history  of  the  earliest  nations,  we  occasionally 
meet,  indeed,  with  accounts  of  females  who  had 
elevated  and  powerful  minds,  and  who  were  well 
informed  for  the  period  in  which  they  lived.  In  the 
history  of  Europe,  during  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries,  we  also  find  a  few  instances  of 
distinguished  women,  some  of  whom,  in  talents, 
learning,  and  virtue,  have,  perhaps,,  never  been  ex- 
celled since  that  period.  But  the  number  of  this 
description  was  so  inconsiderable,  the  circum- 
stances in  which  they  were  placed  were  so  peculiar, 
and  the  influence  of  their  character  and  example  so 
small,  that  they  scarcely  form  exceptions  to  the  ge- 
neral statement  which  has  been  given.  The  great 
mass  of  the  sex  still  remained  unacquainted  with 
letters  and  science;  their  whole  attention  being 
directed  either  to  the  allurements  of  personal  deco- 
ration, or  to  the  details  of  domestic  economy. 

The  eighteenth  century  produced  a  memorable 
change  of  opinion  and  of  practice  on  this  subject. 
The  character  and  talents  of  the  female  sex  have 
become,  during  this  period,  more  highly  esti- 
mated; their  importance  in  society  better  under- 
stood, and  the  means  of  rendering  their  influence 
salutary,  more  familiarly  known  and  adopted; 
in  short,  a  revolution  radical  and  unprecedented 
with  respect  to  their  treatment  and  character,  has 
taken  place,  and  wrought  very  perceptible  effects  in 


280  Education. 

society.  Female  education  has  been  more  an  object 
of  attention,  and  been  conducted  upon  more  liberal 
principles  within  the  last  thirty  years,  in  every  cul- 
tivated part  of  Europe,  and  in  America,  than  at 
any  former  period.  Some  of  the  ablest  pens  have 
been  employed  in  prescribing  plans  for  the  culti- 
vation of  their  minds;  seminaries  of  learning,  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  their  advantage,  have  been  in- 
stituted; women  have,  of  course,  become,  in  gene- 
ral, better  informed;  the  sex  has  furnished  more 
instances  of  learning  and  talents  than  ever  before; 
a  female  of  elevated  understanding,  and  of  respect- 
able literary  acquirements,  is  no  longer  a  wonder- 
ful phenomenon.  Corresponding  to  the  increase 
of  cultivation  bestowed  upon  them,  they  have  risen 
higher  in  the  scale  of  intellect,  and  evinced  a  capa- 
city to  vie  with  the  other  sex  in  literature,  as  well  as 
moral  excellence.  In  a  word,  at  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  it  had  become  as  rare  and  dis- 
graceful for  a  woman  to  be  ignorant,  within  certain 
limits,  as  at  the  commencement  of  it  such  igno- 
rance was  common. 

As  there  is  no  truth  more  generally  admitted, 
than  that  every  step  in  the  progress  of  civilization 
brings  new  honour  to  the  female  sex,  and  increases 
their  importance  in  society;  so  there  is,  perhaps, 
no  fact  which  better  establishes  the  claim  of  the 
eighteenth  century  to  much  progress  in  knowledge 
and  refinement,  than  the  improvements  in  female 
education  to  which  it  has  given  rise.  It  is  a  pro- 
minent feature  in  the  age,  and  forms  one  of  its  sig- 
nal honours,  that  its  close  found  the  female  sex, 
through  a  great  part  of  the  civilized  world,  more 
generally  imbued  with  the  elements  of  literature 
and  science,  than  they  ever  before  possessed  since 
the  creation. 

The  learning  of  the  female  world,  in  the  period 
under  review,  may  be  considered  as  bearing  some 


Education.  281 

peculiarity  of  character.  What  might  have  been 
the  nature,  or  extent  of  the  attainments  made  by  li- 
terary women  in  ancient  Egypt,  Greece  and  Rome, 
we  are  scarcely  qualified  to  judge;  but  the  learned 
women  of  Europe,  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  according  to  the  fashion  of  the  day,  entered 
deeply  into  the  study  of  ancient  languages  ;fl  they 
chiefly  belonged  to  the  higher  ranks  of  life;  and  as 
writing  and  publishing  were  comparatively  rare 
among  all  classes,  so  few  females  presented  them- 
selves before  the  public  in  this  manner.  In  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  the  character  of  female  learning  be- 
came materially  different.  Literary  females,  during 
this  period,  paid  more  attention  to  general  know- 
ledge, not  omitting  some  of  the  practical  branches 
of  physical  science.  In  studying  languages,  they 
devoted  themselves  more  particularly  to  modern 
tongues,,  especially  the  French,  Italian,  and  Ger- 
man.6 Literature  has  descended  from  females  of 
high  rank,  to  those  in  the  middle  walks  of  life* 
and  is,  perhaps3  on  the  whole,  more  frequent 
among  the  latter  than  the  former.  And  while 
learned  women  of  former  times  wrote  and  pub- 


a  Lady  Jane  Grat,  who  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  a  profi- 
cient in  classic  literature.  "  She  had  attained  a  familiar  knowledge  of  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages,  besides  modern  tongues ;  had  passed  most  of 
her  time  in  an  application  to  learning,  and  expressed  a  great  indifference 
for  other  occupations  and  amusements  usual  with  her  sex  and  station. 
Roger  Ascham  having  one  day  paid  her  a  visit,  found  her  employed  in 
reading  Plato,  while  the  rest  of  the  family  were  engaged  in  hunting  in  the: 
park  ;  and  on  his  admiring  the  singularity  of  her  choice,  she  told  him  that 
she  received  more  pleasure  from  that  author  than  the  others  could  reap 
from  all  their  sport  and  gaiety.''  Hume.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  no 
less  remarkable  for  her  learning.  She  is  said  to  have  spoken  both  Greek 
and  Latin  with  readiness,  and  to  have  been  familiarly  acquainted  with  the 
French,  Italian,  and  Spanish  languages.  Other  instances  of  the  same  kind 
might  be  adduced  as  belonging  to  that  age. 

b  A  few  females  of  the  eighteenth  century  distinguished  themselves  by 
their  profound  and  accurate  acquaintance  with  the  Latin  and  Greek  classics. 
The  names  of  Madame  Dacier,  Mrs.  Grierson,  Mrs.  Carter, and  a  few- 
others,  will  be  remembered  with  respect  as  long  as  the  ancient  language* 
are  studied.  But  there  was  certainly  less  disposition  among  the  literary 
females  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  devote  themselves  to  this  pursuit  than 
among  those  of  the  two  preceding  centuries. 
VOL.   II.  *Q 


232  Education. 

lished  little,  those  of  that  sex  who  have  lately 
gained  literary  distinction  have  made  numerous 
and  valuable  publications/  some  of  which  will 
doubtless  descend  with  honour  to  posterity. 

Tr^is  revolution  has  been  gradually  effected,  and 
was  produced  by  a  variety  of  causes.  The  pro- 
gress of  refinement,  while  it  raised  the  female- 
character,  naturally  placed  that  sex  in  a  situation 
more  favourable  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
The  unexampled  diffusion  of  a  taste  for  literature, 
through  the  various  grades  of  society,  could  scarcely 
fail  of  increasing  the  intelligence,  and  meliorating 
the  education  of  females  among  the  rest.  Added 
to  these  considerations,  the  example  and  the  writ- 
ings of  some  celebrated  women  served  to  excite 
emulation,  and  to  produce  a  thirst  for  knowledge 
among  many  others  of  their  sex ;  these  latter,  again, 
within  the  sphere' of  their  influence,  produced  the 
same  good  effects  on  their  associates;  academies 
for  the  particular  instruction  of  females  soon  be- 
came popular;  and  thus,  within  the  last  fifty  years, 
their  literary  interests  have  been  constantly  gaining 
ground. 

Among  the  numerous  females  whose  names 
might  be  mentioned,  as  having  contributed  to  this 
revolution,  by  their  example  and  their  writings, 


*  "  In  this  country,"  (England)  says  Mr.  Polewhele,  in  his  Unsex*/ 
Females,  "  a  female  author  was  formerly  esteemed  a  phenomenon  in  Li- 
terature ;  and  she  was  sure  of  a  favourable  reception  among  the  critics,  in 
consideration  of  her  sex.  This  species  of  gallantry,  however,  conveyed  no 
compliment  to  her  understanding.  It  implied  such  an  inferiority  of  women 
in  the  scale  of  intellect  as  was  justly  humiliating  :  and  critical  forbearance 
was  mortifying  to  female  vanity.  At  the  present  day,  indeed,  our  literary 
women  are  so  numerous,  that  their  judges,  waving  all  complimentary  civi- 
lities, decide  upon  their  merits  with  the  same  rigid  impartiality  as  it  seems 
right  to  exercise  towards  the  men.  The  tribunal  of  criticism  is  no  longer 
charmed  into  complacence  by  the  blushes  of  modest  apprehension.  It  no 
longer  imagines  the  pleading  eye  of  feminine  diffidence  that  speaks  a  con- 
sciousness of  comparative  imbecility,  or  a  fearfulness  of  haying  offended  by 
intrusion." 


Education.  283 

particular  distinction  is  due  to  Mrs.  Cocxburn/ 
Mrs  Carter/  Mrs.  Barbauld,  Mrs.  Lennox, 
Mrs.  Montague/  Mrs.  Macaulay  Graham, 
Mrs.  Chapone,  Mrs.  Radcliffe,  Miss  Hannah 
More/  Miss  Seward,  Mrs.  D'Arelay,  Miss 
Charlotte  Smith,  Miss  Hamilton,  Miss  Wake- 
field, and  many  others,  of  Great-Britain;  Mrs. 
Grierson/  and  Mrs.  Edgeworth,  of  Ireland: 
Madame  Dacier,  and  Madame  Chatelet/  of 
France;  together  with  many  more/  equally  worthy 
of  respectful  notice,  and  who  have  long  held  a 
high  place  among  literary  females. 

The  extension  and  improvement  of  female  edu- 

d  An  acute  and  celebrated  metaphysician  of  Great-Britain,  who  died  in 
1749.     Her  works  have  been  since  printed  in  two  volumes  octavo. 

e  Miss  Elizabeth  Carter,  an  English  lady  of  great  erudition,  and 

of  distinguished   talents.     Her  translation  of  EpUtetus  is  generally  known. 

f  "  It  is  no  trivial  praise,"  says  Mr.  Polewhele,   "to  say  that  Mrs. 

Montague  is  the  best   female    critic  ever  produced  in  any  country." 

Unsex'd  Females,  p.  42.   Note. 

g  Miss  Hannah  More  is  one  of  the  most  illustrious  ornaments  of  her 
sex  that  the  eighteenth  century  produced.  "  To  great  natural  endowments," 
says  a  late  writer,  "  she  has  added  the  learning  of  lady  Jane  Grav  with-* 
"  out  the  pedantry,  and  the  piety  of  Mrs.  Rowe  without  the  enthusi- 
*'  asm."  As  no  female  writer  in  the  English  language  is  more  celebrated 
than  Miss  More,  so  there  is  certainly  no  one  to  whom  the  general  in- 
terests of  virtue,  and  especially  the  female  sex,  are  more  indebted  than 
to  her.  She  has  delineated  the  true  honour  and  happiness  of  woman  more 
faithfully,  perhaps,  than  any  other  writer,  and  has  plead  her  cause  with 
discrimination,  with  dignity,  and  with  effect. 

b  Mrs.  Constantia  Grierson,  descended  fromverypoor  and  illiter- 
ate parents,  in  the  county  of  Kilkenny,  in  Ireland.  She  was  born  in  the 
year  1706,  and  died  in  1733,  in  the  27th  year  of  her  age.  She  was  pro- 
foundly acquainted  with  Grecian  and  Roman  literature  ;  published  editions 
of  Terence  and  Tacitus,  which  are  among  the  best  extant ;  and  addressed 
an  elegant  Greek  epigram  to  the  son  of  Lord  Cartaret,  by  the  influence 
of  which  nobleman  her  husband  procured  a  patent  to  be  the  King's  printer 
for  Ireland,  on  condition  that  the  life  and  character  of  Mrs.  Grierson 
should  be  inserted  in  it,  as  a  monument  in  honour  of  her  learning. 

i  The  numerous  and  profound  works  of  Madame  Dacier,  in  classic 
literature,  are  well  known  ;  as  are  also  the  talents  and  learning  of  Madame 
du  Chatelet,  the  able  commentator  on  Newton. 

j  To  this  list  may  be  added  the  names  of  the  Margravine  of  Anspach, 
Mrs.  D0B30N,  Mrs.  Brooke,  Mrs.  Cowley,  Mrs.  Yearsley,  Mrs. 
Inchbald,  Mrs.  West,  Miss  Lee,  Miss  Williams,  and  several  others, 
distinguished  in  the  walks  of  polite  literature ;  and  also  the  honourable 
Mrs.  Damer,  Mrs.  Francis,  and  Mrs.  Thomas,  celebrated  f'-r  their  ac- 
quirements in  the  ancient  languages. 


284  Education. 

cation  has  also  been  promoted  by  the  writings  of 
Archbishop  FENELON,Dr.  Gregory, Dr.  Fordyce, 
Mr.  Bennett,  Dr.  Darwin,  and  some  others. 
Even  the  celebrated  work  of  Rousseau  has  contri- 
buted to  this  end,  notwithstanding  the  visionary 
and  erroneous  principles  with  which  it  abounds. 

But  while  female  talents  have  been  more  justly 
appreciated,  and  more  generally  improved,  espe- 
cially during  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, certain  extravagant  and  mischievous  doc- 
trines relating  to  that  sex  have  arisen  within  this 
period,  and  obtained  considerable  currency.  These 
doctrines  are  the  following,  viz.  "  That  there  is 
no  difference  between  the  powers  and  tendencies 
of  the  male  and  female  mind;  that  women  are  as 
capable  of  performing,  and  as  fit  to  perform,  all 
the  duties  and  offices  of  life  as  men;  that  their 
education  should  be  the  same  with  that  of  the 
men;  in  a  word,  that,  except  in  the  business  of 
love,  all  distinctions  of  sex  should  be  forgotten  and 
confounded."  These  opinions,  if  not  wholly  new, 
and  peculiar  to  the  last  age,  have  doubtless  ob- 
tained a  currency,  within  a  few  years  past,  which 
they  never  before  had,  and  which  has  produced 
much  interesting  discussion,  and  very  sensible  ef- 
fects in  society. 

The  most  conspicuous  advocate  of  these  opi- 
nions is  the  celebrated  Mary  Wollstonecraft/ 
whose  ingenious  vindication  of  the  Rights  of  Wo- 
man is  universally  known ;  and  whose  licentious 
practice  renders  her  memory  odious  to  every  friend 
of  virtue.  In  her  principles  on  this  subject  she 
has  been  followed  by  several  of  her  own  sex,  as 
well  as  by  a  few  male  writers.  To  the  former 
class  belongs  Mary  Hays,  who,  in  her  Novels 

i  As  this  lady  is  better  known  by  her  maiden  name  than  by  that  which, 
she  assumed  after  becoming;  the  wife  of  Mr.  Godwin,  the  former  if 
retained. 


Education.  285 

and  Philosophical  Disquisitions,  has  endeavoured, 
with  great  art  and  plausibility,  to  recommend  the 
principles  of  this  mischievous  school. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  a  total  mistake  con- 
cerning the  capacity  and  importance  of  the  female 
sex,  has  long  held  that  part  of  our  species  under  a 
most  degrading  thraldom,  and  obscured  the  por- 
tion of  intellectual  and  moral  excellence  which 
they  possess.  It  may  also,  with  truth,  be  granted, 
that  the  idea  of  an  original  difference  between  the 
mental  characters  and  powers  of  the  two  sexes 
has  been  pushed  greatly  too  far,  and  been  made  a 
source  of  long-continued  and  essential  injury  to 
women.  Females,  if  it  were  practicable  or  proper 
to  give  them,  in  all  respects,  the  same  education 
as  that  bestowed  on  men,  would  probably  discover 
nearly  equal  talents,  and  exhibit  little  difference 
in  their  intellectual  structure  and  energies.  But 
is  it  possible,  or  consistent  with  the  obvious  in- 
dications of  nature,  to  give  them  precisely  the 
same  education  as  is  given  to  the  male  part  of  our 
species  ?  That  this  is  neither  practicable  nor  de- 
sirable will  appear  from  the  following  consider^ 
ations. 

First.  Women  are  obviously  destined  to  different 
employments  and  pursuits  from  men.  This  is  evi- 
dent from  various  considerationr.  Among  all  the 
classes  of  animals  with  which  we  are  acquainted, 
the  female  is  smaller,  weaker,  and  usually  more 
timid  than  the  male.  This  fact  cannot  be  ascribed 
to  difference  of  education,  to  accident,  or  to  per- 
verted systems  of  living  among  the  inferior  animals  ; 
for  it  is  uniform,  and  nearly,  if  not  entirely,  uni- 
versal, applying  to  all  countries,  climates,  and  situa- 
tions; and  if  ever  we  may  expect  to  find  nature 
pure  and  unperverted,  it  must  be  among  the  brutal 
tribes.  The  same  fact  applies  to  the  human  spe- 
cies.   The  bodies  of  women,  in  general,  are  smaller 


286  Education. 

and  feebler  than  those  of  men,  and  they  are  com- 
monly more  timid.  This  is  not  merely  the  case  in 
the  more  polished  states  of  society,  in  which  false 
refinement,  or  injurious  habits,  may  be  supposed 
to  have  degraded  the  female  character;  but  it 
is  nearly,  if  not  equally  so  among  savages,  where 
women,  instead  of  being  wholly  or  chiefly  seden- 
tary, are  rather  the  more  laborious  sex.  How 
shall  we  account  for  this  fact?  Does  it  not 
seem  to  indicate  a  difference  of  employment  and 
destination?  Is  it  conceivable  that  there  should  be 
so  much  difference  of  structure  between  beings  in- 
tended for  precisely  the  same  sphere  of  action  ?  No 
one  can  suppose  this,  who  believes  that  the  various 
departments  of  nature  are  all  formed  by  a  Being  of 
infinite  wisdom,  and  that  in  the  economy  of  crea- 
tion and  providence,  means  are  adjusted  to  ends. 

Again ;  the  important  offices  of  gestation  and 
parturition  being  assigned  to  women,  plainly  point 
out  the  difference  of  situation,  pursuit,  and  employ- 
ment for  which  we  are  contending.  The  various 
circumstances  of  infirmity  and  confinement  result- 
ing from  these  offices,  present  insurmountable  ob- 
stacles in  the  way  of  that  sex  engaging  in  many 
employments  destined  for  men.  If  all  distinctions, 
except  in  the  business  of  love,  ought  to  be  con- 
founded, then  females  ought  to  be  called  to  sit  on 
the  bench  of  justice,  to  fill  the  seats  of  legislation, 
to  hold  the  reigns  of  executive  office,  and  to  lead 
the  train  of  war.  But  would  such  a  kind  of  ac- 
tivity as  any  of  these  stations  suppose,  comport 
with  their  sexual  duties?  The  slightest  reflection, 
it  is  presumed,  will  be  sufficient  to  convince  every 
unprejudiced  inquirer,  that  there  is  a  total  incom- 
patibility between  them. 

Secondly.  To  make  the  education  and  the  em- 
ployments'of  the  two  sexes  precisely  the  same, 
would,  if  practicable  in  itself,  be  productive  of  the 


Education.  287 

most  immoral  consequences.  Let  us  suppose  young 
females  to  mingle  promiscuously  with  the  youth 
of  the  other  sex,  in  their  studies,  in  their  amuse- 
ments, and  in  all  the  means  adopted  to  strengthen 
the  bodies  and  the  minds  of  each.  Let  us  suppose, 
that  after  the  elements  of  knowledge  were  ac- 
quired, the  same  employments  were  assigned  to 
each  sex.  Let  us  suppose  the  various  stations  of  civil 
trust  to  be  rilled  indifferently  by  men  and  women; 
the  places  destined  for  the  instruction  of  lawyers, 
physicians  and  surgeons  to  be  occupied  by  a  jumb- 
led crowd  of  male  and  female  students;  the  clerk- 
ships in  counting-houses,  and  public  offices,  ex- 
ecuted by  a  joint  corps  of  male  and  female  pen- 
men; and  the  bands  of  labourers  in  manufactories 
formed  without  any  distinction  of  sex.  What 
would  be  the  consequences  of  these  arrangements? 
It  would  convert  society  into  hordes  of  seducers 
and  prostitutes.  Instead  of  the  regularity,  the 
order,  the  pleasing  charities,  and  the  pure  delights 
of  wedded  love,  a  system  of  universal  concubinage 
would  prevail.  Seminaries  of  learning  would  be 
changed  into  nurseries  of  licentiousness  and  dis- 
ease; the  proceedings  of  deliberative  assemblies 
would  be  perverted  or  arrested  by  the  wiles  of 
amorous  intrigue;  the  places  of  commercial  or 
mechanical  business  would  become  the  haunts  of 
noisy  and  restless  lewdness;  and  all  sober  employ- 
ment would  yield  to  the  dominion  of  brutal  appetite. 
The  far-famed  author  of  the  Rights  of  Wo- 
man, in  the  introduction  to  a  book  designed  for 
the  use  of  young  ladies,  does  not  scruple  to  say, 
that  <c  in  order  to  lay  the  axe  at  the  root  of  cor- 
ruption, it  would  be  proper  to  familiarize  the 
sexes  to  an  unreserved  discussion  of  those  topics 
which  are  generally  avoided  in  conversation,  from 
a  principle  of  false  delicacy;  and  that  it  would  be 
right  to  speak  of  every  part  of  the  body,  as  freely 


288  Education. 

as  we  mention  our  eyes  or  our  hands."  Such  are 
her  ideas  of  the  decency  and  the  moral  tendency 
of  breaking  down  all  distinctions  in  the  ordinary 
intercourse  of  the  sexes  !  It  may  be  pronounced, 
that  all  history  and  experience  are  directly  opposed 
to  this  doctrine,  and  prove,  that  Miss  Wollstone- 
craft  was  as  ignorant  of  human  nature,  as  she 
was  inimical  to  true  virtue.  Let  us  take  a  retro- 
spect of  those  countries  and  ages,  in  which  the 
intercourse  of  the  sexes,  with  respect  to  violations 
of  what  are  commonly  called  the  laws  of  decorum, 
came  nearest  to  the  point  of  freedom  here  recom- 
mended. In  the  ancient  gymnastic  exercises,  it  is 
well  known,  that  the  young  women  were  obliged 
to  run,  to  wrestle,  to  throw  quoits,  &c.  and,  in 
these  exercises,  to  appear  naked,  as  well  as  the 
men;  and  at  their  feasts  and  sacrifices,  they  were 
also  obliged  to  dance,  in  the  same  state  of  perfect 
nudity,  amidst  crowds  of  male  spectators.  What 
was  the  consequence  of  these  proceedings  ?  Ac- 
cording to  the  doctrine  of  that  bold  reformer,  whose 
sentiments  are  under  consideration,  such  freedom 
in  exposing  the  naked  limbs,  and  those  parts  of 
the  body  which  are  generally  concealed,  ought  to 
have  "  laid  the  axe  at  the  root  of  corruption/'  and 
rendered  the  people  who  indulged  in  these  habits, 
the  most  virtuous  in  the  world,  with  regard  to  the 
intercourse  of  the  sexes.  But  was  this  really  the 
consequence?  Directly  the  reverse!  The  exercises 
in  question  were  converted  into  occasions  of  wan- 
tonness and  libertinism,  so  gross  and  flagitious, 
that  they  became  subjects  of  universal  complaint, 
and  filled  even  pagans  writh  horror. 

The  truth  is,  whenever  the  intercourse  of  the 
sexes  has  been  most  guarded,  and  the  fences  o( 
delicacy  and  modesty  most  carefully  kept  up,  there 
the  highest  degree  of  virtue  and  order  has  invar'w 
ably  prevailed.     It  is  so  far  from  being  a  corrupt 


Education.  289 

opinion,  that  throwing  off  reserve/  is  the  best 
way  to  "  lay  the  axe  at  the  root  of  corruption/' 
that  uniform  experience  proves  this  course  to  be 
the  most  mischievous  and  corrupting  that  can  be 
imagined.  There  is  no  way  of  avoiding  this  con- 
sequence, but  by  maintaining,  that  many  things 
which  Christianity,  and  those  who  take  their  stand- 
ard or  morality  from  it,  pronounce  vicious,  are 
really  innocent,  if  not  laudable.  Accordingly, 
Miss  Wollstonecraft,  and  her  disciples,  seem 
to  believe,  that  the  restraints  which  marriage  im- 
poses ought  not  to  be  submitted  to;  and  if  we  may 
consider  the  life  of  that  remarkable  woman  as  a 
commentary  on  her  doctrines,  it  is  plain  that  the 
destruction  of  chastity  is  the  native  fruit  of  her  ad- 
mired system.'"  What  could  be  the  effect  in  soci- 
ety, if  every  female  were  to  imbibe  the  sentiments, 
and  act  the  part  of  this  shameless  advocate  of  lewd- 
ness ?  The  essence  of  domestic  bliss  would  be  de- 
stroyed; the  reign  of  licentiousness  would  be  uni- 
versally established ;  chastity  would  be  banished 
from  the  earth ;  some  of  the  strongest  ties  which 
bind  society  together  would  be  dissolved;  and  the 
female  sex  degraded  to  the  most  abject  condition. 

/  It  is  not  forgotten  that  Miss  Wollstonecraft  speaks  much  of 
the  importance  and  efficacy  of  restive;  but  it  is  a  reserve  to  be  exercised 
equally  between  persons  of  the  same  sex  as  between  persons  of  different 
sexes.  And  she,  at  the  same  time,  inculcates  doctrines  which  are  utterly 
inconsistent  with  that  reserve  which  the  virtuous  part  of  mankind  have 
always  considered  as  indispensably  necessary  to  be  maintained  between  the 
sexes. 

m  See  Memoirs  of  Mary  Wollstonecraft  Gobwin,  &c.  by  Wil- 
liam Godwin.  The  author  forbears  to  speak  of  this  work  in  the  man- 
ner which  he  thinks  it  deserves.  It  is  a  most  instructive  commentary  on 
the  principles  held  and  published  by  the  singular  woman  whose  life,  cha- 
racter and  end  it  exhibits.  It  is  vain  to  apologize  for  her  crimes  and  in- 
famy by  pleading  that  she  was  led  astray  by  a  set  of  delusive  opinions,  and 
that  she  intended  no  hostility  against  society.  The  truth  is,  the  person 
who  is  immoral  upon  principle  belongs  to  the  m«st  criminal  class  of  offend- 
ers. When  a  woman  becomes  a  prostitute  or  adulteress,  merely  from  the 
strength  of  passion,  and  in  opposition  to  her  convictions,  detestable  as  her 
character  is,  she  is  less  to  be  abhorred  than  she  who  deliberately  numbers 
these  crimes  among  the  rights  of  -woman,  and  considers  them  as  belonging 
to  the  proper  dignity  and  independence  of  the  female  sex. 
VOL.  II.  aP 


290  Education. 

Thirdly.  To  advocate  the  system  which  woufcf 
confound  all  distinctions  of  sex,  except  in  the  bu- 
siness of  love,  is  as  much  opposed  to  the  spirit  of 
Christianity  as  it  is  inconsistent  with  the  pursuits 
of  the  female  sex,  and  immoral  in  its  consequences. 
Those  who  are  familiar  with  the  scriptures  will  re- 
collect, that  a  line  of  distinction  between  the  sexes 
is  frequently  and  carefully  drawn  therein,  and  an 
habitual  reference  to  this  distinction  represented 
as  highly  important  in  the  system  of  human  duty. 
Upon  this  distinction,  considered  in  several  points 
of  view,  are  founded  some  of  the  most  inter- 
esting conjugal  obligations,  and  all  the  leading 
principles  of  domestic  government.  The  scriptures, 
indeed,  do  not  exhibit  woman  as  an  enslaved  and 
servile  being  ;  they  represent  her  as  a  rational  and 
immortal  creature,  as  the  counsellor,  companion, 
and  help-mate  of  men,  and  teach  us,  both  by  pre- 
cept and  example,  to  consider  her  as  holding  a 
high  and  respectable  station  in  society.  But  they 
exclude  her,  by  direct  prohibition,  from  the  office 
of  public  religious  instructor,  and  plainly  intimate, 
that  several  other  employments  and  pursuits  are 
unfit  to  engage  her  attention.  In  short,  they  dis- 
tinctly and  unequivocally  hold  up  the  idea  of  an 
appropriate  sexual  character,  and  represent  a  cor- 
responding peculiarity  of  studies  and  action,  as 
properly  belonging  to  the  male  and  female. 

It  is  evident,  then,  from  reason,  from  the  uni- 
form course  of  nature,  from  experience,  and  from 
the  word  of  God,  that  females  are  destined  for  dif- 
ferent pursuits  and  employments  from  men,  and 
that  the  sphere  of  their  activity  should  be  different. 
This,  of  consequence,  will  call  for  a  different  educa- 
tion, will  lead  to  different  habits,  and  will  give  rise 
to  distinguishing  characteristics.  Do  not  the  pro- 
fessional employments  of  men  every  day  beget  ob- 
servable peculiarities  of  character  and  taste  ?   And 


Education.  291 

is  it  not  perfectly  natural,  on  the  same  principle, 
that  there  should  be  sexual  peculiarities?  Nor  is 
there  any  necessity  for  supposing  a  radical  inferio- 
rity of  intellectual  power  in  females.  It  will  be 
readily  granted,  that  with  the  same  kind,  and  the 
same  degree  of  cultivation  with  men,  they  would 
exhibit  equal  capacity  of  mind.  But  the  necessary 
reserve  ot  the  female  sex,  their  domestic  duties, 
their  sedentary  life,  the  infirmities  and  confinement 
resulting  from  the  peculiar  sexual  offices  before  al- 
luded to,  and  the  various  peculiarities  of  their  situ- 
ation, are  abundantly  sufficient  to  produce  in  them 
a  different  genius  and  character  of  mind  from  those 
of  men,  whose  active  employments,  daring  enter- 
prizes,  aspiring  ambition,  diversified  scenes  and 
occupations,  familiarity  with  danger,  and  unceas- 
ing labours  to  gain  fame,  wealth,  or  pleasure,  im- 
part to  their  minds  a  vigour,  a  courage,  a  solidity, 
a  wariness,  and  a  persevering  patience  in  exer- 
tion, which  are  rarely  found  in  women." 

n  Miss  Hannah  More,  in  one  of  her  Essays,  seems  to  admit  the  idea  of 
an  original  inferiority  of  mental  character  in  females.  She  expresses  herself 
in  this  manner:  "  Women  have  generally  quicker  perceptions;  men  have 
juster  sentiments.  Women  consider  how  things  may  be  prettily  said ;  men, 
how  they  may  be  properly  said.  Women  speak,  to  shine  or  please ;  men,  to 
convince,  or  confute.  Women  admire  what  is  brilliant;  men,  what  if 
solid.  Women  prefer  a  sparkling  effusion  of  fancy  to  the  most  laborious 
investigation  of  facts.  In  literary  composition,  women  are  pleased  with 
antithesis ;  men,  with  observation  and  a  just  deduction  of  effects  from  their 
causes.  In  Romance  and  Novel-writing  women  cannot  be  excelled.  To 
amuse,  rather  than  to  instruct,  or  to  instruct  indirectly,  by  short  infer- 
ences drawn  from  a  long  concatenation  of  circumstances,  is,  at  once,  the 
business  of  this  sort  of  composition,  and  one  of  the  characteristics  of  female 
genius.  In  short,  it  appears,  that  the  mind,  in  each  sex,  has  some  natural 
kind  of  bias,  which  constitutes  a  distinction  of  character ;  and  that  the 
happiness  of  both  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  on  the  preservation  and  ob- 
servance of  this  distinction."  Essay,  p.  9 — 13.  In  the  sentiment  here 
expressed  I  cannot  altogether  agree  with  this  excellent  and  illustrious  woman. 
That  there  is  some  such  difference  as  she  has  stated  between  the  sexes,  I 
am  ready  to  allow  ;  but  this  appears  to  me  to  arise  not  so  much  from  any 
original  inferiority  in  the  structure  of  the  female  mind,  as  from  a  difference 
of  education  and  employment;  from  a  difference  in  the  circumstances  in 
which  women  are  placed  in  society,  with  respect  to  inducements  to  action, 
the  nature  of  their  amusements,  &c.  a  difference  which  is  necessary  and 
proper,  and  which,  to  set  aside,  would  be  to  derange  the  order?  and  destroy 
the  happiness  of  society. 


292  Education. 

What,  then,  is  the  conclusion  of  the  matter  ?  It 
is,  that  women,  as  well  as  men,  are  rational  be- 
ings ;    that  they  are  made  not  to  be  the  servants, 
but  the  companions  of  men  5  that,  for  this  purpose, 
where  it  is  practicable,  their  minds  should  be  cul- 
tivated with  care,  liberally  imbued  with  know- 
ledge, and  so  strengthened  and  polished  as  to  fit 
them  to  shine  not  only  in  the  routine  of  domestic 
employments,  but  also  in  the  social  circle,  and 
in   the   literary   conversation.     Every   man  who 
understands    the    true  interests  of   society,   will 
desire  to  see  females  receive  the  best  education 
which  their  circumstances  will  afford.    And  every 
one  who  considers  the  importance  of  enlightening 
and  forming  the  minds  of  the  young,  and  who 
recollects  that  this  task  must,  for  a  number  of  the 
first  years  of  life,  be  almost  entirely  entrusted  to 
mothers,  will  perceive  the  propriety  of  having  them 
more  accurately  and  extensively  informed  than  they 
commonly  are.     But  when  women  carry  the  idea 
of  their  equality  with  the  other  sex  so  far  as  to  in- 
sist that  there  should  be  no  difference  in  their  edu- 
cation and  pursuits 3  when  they  contend  that  every 
kind  of  study  or  occupation  is  equally  fit  and  desir- 
able for  them  to  pursue  as  for  men  -°  when  they  ima- 
gine, and  act  on  the  presumption,  that  they  have  ta- 
lents as  well  suited  to  every  species  of  employment 
and  enterprize,  they  mistake  both  their  character* 
their  dignity,  and  their  Jiappiness.  The  God  of  na- 

•  It  is  by  no  means  the  intention  of  the  writer  to  say,  that  the  profound 
investigations  of  mathematical  or  metaphysical  science  are  unfit  for  all  fe* 
males.  Where  persons  of  this  sex  are  so  situated,  with  regard  to  property 
and  employment,  as  to  render  investigations  of  this  kind  convenient  and 
agreeable,  there  appears  no  rational  objection  to  their  engaging  in  them. 
But  when  females  devote  themselves  to  studies  of  this  nature,  to  the  neglect 
of  religious  and  moral  improvement,  which  are  indispensably  necessary  for 
every  sex  and  age  ;  and  to  the  omission  also  of  geography,  history,  chemistry, 
and  some  of  the  more  attractive  branches  of  natural  history,  if  they  do  not 
depart  from  the  province  of  their  sex,  they  certainly  have  a  singular  taste 
as  to  what  is  most  useful  and  most  ornamental  in  females,  situated  as  they 
arc  in  society. 


Education.  293 

ture  has  raised  everlasting  barriers  against  such  wild 
and  mischievous  claims.  To  urge  them  is  to  re- 
nounce reason;  to  contradict  experience;  to  tram- 
ple on  the  divine  authority;  and  to  diminish  the 
usefulness,  the  respectability,  and  the  real  enjoy- 
ment of  the  female  sex. 

Notwithstanding,  however,  the  falshood  and 
mischievous  tendency  of  the  doctrines  taught  in 
the  Wollstonecraftian  school,  they  have  obtained 
much  currency,  particularly  in  Great-Britain, 
France  and  Germany;  and  have  concurred  with 
the  general  progress  of  luxury  and  false  refinement 
to  corrupt  the  morals  and  degrade  the  character  of 
the  female  sex,  especially  towards  the  close  of  the 
period  under  consideration/  In  proportion  as  prin- 
ciples of  this  nature  have  been  received,  the  becom- 
ing modesty  and  reserve  of  the  sex  have  been  dimi- 
nished or  laid  aside ;  their  peculiar  duties  have 
been  forgotten;  and  the  comforts  of  domestic  life 
have  experienced  serious  encroachments. 

It  must  also  be  acknowledged,  that  the  in- 
creased intelligence  and  the  taste  for  reading,  which 
remarkably  characterize  the  female  sex  of  the  pre- 
sent day,  compared  with  their  condition  a  century 
ago,  are  attended  with  some  circumstances  which 


/  It  is  not  pretended  that  the  Amazonian  stile  of  dress  and  manners  in 
females  was  never  known  previous  to  the  appearance  of  Miss  Woll- 
stonecraft's  Higbts  of  Woman.  Whoever  looks  into  the  Spectator ;  the 
Guardian,  &c.  and  indeed  into  some  of  the  essays  written  long  before  those 
celebrated  works,  will  see  the  unseemly  dress  and  deportment  of  the  wo- 
men of  those  days  severely  lashed;  and  in  language  which,  with  scarcely 
any  alteration,  would  apply  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  How 
shall  we  account  for  the  fact,  that  indecencies  of  this  kind  are  continued 
and  extended,  notwithstanding  the  severity  of  rebuke  that  has  been  uni- 
formly directed  against  them  ;  and  notwithstanding  the  abundant  evidence 
which  is  constantly  presented,  that  they  are  viewed  with  disapprobation, 
and  even  with  abhorrence,  by  all  the  more  estimable  part  of  the  other 
sex  ?  It  is  difficult  to  find  an  answer  to  this  question,  which  would  not 
reflect  most  severely,  either  on  the  understanding  or  the  principles  of  many 
modern  females,  or  on  both.  It  is  to  be  lamented,  that  the  evil  com- 
plained of,  instead  of  declining  with  the  increase  of  reading  and  cultivation 
among  the  female  sex,  is  increasing  with  still  more  rapid  progression . 


294  Education. 

the  friends  of  virtue  and  happiness  cannot  content 
plate  with  un mingled  pleasure.  By  far  too  great 
a  portion  of  the  reading  of  females  is  directed  to 
Novels,  and  other  productions  of  light  and  frivo- 
lous character,  which,  at  best,  can  only  amuse,  and 
which  often  exert  a  corrupting  influence,  instead  of 
enlightening  the  mind,  and  forming  it  to  a  love  of 
wisdom  and  virtue.  Hence  the  frequent  com-? 
plaint,  among  the  sober  and  discerning,  that  mo- 
dern female  education  is  calculated  to  make  su- 
perficial, assuming  and  dissipated,  rather  than  wise 
and  useful  women;  and  that  they  have  just  learn- 
ing enough  to  detach  them  from  the  peculiar  and 
proper  duties  of  their  sex,  but  not  sufficient  to  ex- 
pand, enrich,  and  regulate  their  minds.  This  com- 
plaint has,  doubtless,  some  foundation.9  But  in- 
stead of  proving  that  a  taste  for  literature  is  impro- 
per or  injurious  in  females,  it  only  serves  to  admo- 
nish us,  that  their  studies  should  be  more  extensive 
and  better  directed ;  that  an  acquaintance  with 
novels  only  will  never  make  any  woman  a  good 
housewife,  mother,  friend,  or  christian;  and  that 
literature  in  them,  as  well  as  the  other  sex,  though, 
in  itself,  an  invaluable  blessing,  may  be  perverted 
into  a  heavy  curse. 

The  elegant  accomplishments  of  music  and 
drawing  were  also  more  commonly  made  a  part 
of  female  education,  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  than  at  any  former  period  with  the  his- 

f  If  the  statement  given  in  a  former  page,  respecting  the  character  and 
destination  of  the  female  sex,  be  just,  then  engaging  in  literary  pursuits  of 
such  a  kindy  or  to  such  a  degree,  as  will  render  them  either  unfit  or  indis- 
posed to  act  in  their  peculiar  domestic  sphere,  is,  in  ordinary  cases,  unwise 
and  mischievous.  This  remark  applies,  with  particular  force,  to  that  kind 
of  reading  which  has  a  tendency  to  consume  time,  without  conferring 
a  single  advantage  of  solid  information,  or  of  real  wisdom.  Those  young 
ladies  who,  instead  of  studying  theology,  morals,  grammar,  geography, 
history,  chemistry,  &c.  give  all  their  reading  hours  to  Novels,  would  do 
well  to  ask  themselves,  how  far  this  kind  of  employment  is  likely  to  qualify 
them  to  be  dignified  heads  of  families,  respectable  companions  of  their  hu»= 
bands,  or  useful  members  of  society  ? 


Education.  29  $ 

tory  of  which  we  are  acquainted.  We  now  see 
every  day,  in  the  houses  of  those  who  belong  to  the 
middle  class  of  society,  instruments  of  music,  and 
productions  of  the  pencil,  which,  a  century  ago, 
were  rarely  seen  in  the  houses  of  the  most  conspi- 
cuous and  wealthy.  This  increase  of  attention  to 
music,  as  a  part  of  female  education,  during  the 
last  century,  is  more  especially  remarkable  in 
Great-Britain  and  America. 

On  the  subject  of  Education,  the  century  under 
review  has  given  birth  to  a  doctrine,  which, 
though  noticed  in  a  former  chapter,  is  yet  too  re- 
markable and  too  pregnant  with  mischief  to  be 
suffered  to  pass  without  more  particular  consider- 
ation in  the  present.  It  is,  that  Education  has  a 
kind  of  intellectual  and  moral  omnipotence;  that  to 
its  different  forms  are  to  be  ascribed  the  chief,  if 
not  all  the  differences  observable  in  the  genius, 
talents,  and  dispositions  of  men;  and  that  by  im- 
proving its  principles  and  plan,  human  nature  may, 
and  finally  will,  reach  a  state  of  absolute  perfec- 
tion in  this  world,  or  at  least  go  on  to  a  state  of 
unlimited  improvement.  In  short,  in  the  estima- 
tion of  those  who  adopt  this  doctrine,  man  is  the 
child  of  circumstances;  and  by  meliorating  these, 
without  the  aid  of  religion,  his  true  and  highest 
elevation  is  to  be  obtained ;  and  they  even  go  so 
far  as  to  believe  that,  by  means  of  the  advance- 
ment of  light  and  knowledge,  all  vice,  misery  and 
death  may  finally  be  banished  from  the  earth. 
This  system,  as  was  before  observed,  seems  to  have 
been  first  distinctly  taught  by  M.  Helvetius,  a 
celebrated  French  author,  who  x  wrote  about  the 
middle  of  the  age  we  are  considering,  and  was 
afterwards  adopted  and  urged  with  great  zeal  by 
many  of  his  countrymen,  particularly  Mirabaud 
and  Condorcet;  and  also  by  Mr.  Godwin,  and 
others,  of  Great-Britain, 


296  Education. 

This  doctrine,  of  the  omnipotence  of  education, 
and  the  perfectibility  of  man,  seems  liable,  among 
many  others,  to  the  following  strong  objections. 

First,  It  is  contrary  to  the  nature  and  condition  of 
man.  Though  every  succeeding  generation  may  be 
said,  with  respect  to  literary  and  scientific  acquisi- 
tions, to  stand  on  the  ground  gained  by  their  pre- 
decessors, and  thus  to  be  continually  making  pro- 
gress; yet  this  is  by  no  means  the  case  with  re- 
gard to  intellectual  discipline  and  moral  qualities. 
Each  successive  individual,  however  elevated  the 
genius,  and  however  sublime  the  virtues  of  his 
ancestors,  has  to  perform  the  task  of  restraining 
his  own  appetites,  subduing  his  own  passions,  and 
guarding  against  the  excesses  to  which  his  irregu- 
lar propensities  would  prompt  him.  Suppose  a 
Bacon,  or  a  Newton,  after  all  his  intellectual  and 
moral  attainments,  to  have  a  son.  Is  this  son 
more  wise  or  more  virtuous,  on  account  of  the 
genius  and  attainments  of  his  parent?  By  no  means. 
He  has  the  same  laborious  process  to  undergo,  for 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  and  the  same  vigi- 
lance and  patient  self-denial  to  exercise,  for  the 
regulation  of  his  moral  character,  as  if  his  parent 
had  been  the  most  ignorant  and  degraded  of  be- 
ings. And  this,  from  the  nature  and  condition  of 
man,  must  always  continue  to  be  the  case.  If 
every  successive  individual  of  our  species  must 
come  into  the  world  ignorant,  feeble,  and  helpless ; 
and  if  the  same  process  for  instilling  knowledge 
into  the  mind,  and  restraining  moral  irregularities, 
must  be  undergone,  de  ?wvos  in  every  instance,  on 
what  do  these  sanguine  calculators  rest  their  hopes 
that  we  shall  attain  a  state  of  intellectual  and 
moral  perfection  in  the  present  world?  They  must 
suppose  either  that  the  propagation  of  the  species, 
by  the  intercourse  of  the  sexes,  will  cease;  or  that, 
contrary  to  every  law,  man  will  at  length  come  into 


Education.  297 

the  world  with  all  that  maturity  of  reason,  light, 
and  information,  which  belongs  to  adult  years. 
But  it  is  presumed  neither  of  these  suppositions 
will  be  adopted  by  rational  inquirers. 

Secondly.  Anothef  objection  to  this  doctrine 
is,  that  it  is  contrary  to  all  experience.  The  world 
has  existed  near  six  thousand  years,  and  during 
this  long  period,  the  exertions  of  intellect  and  of 
virtue  have  been  numerous  and  great.  It  will  even 
be  readily  granted,  that  amidst  the  mortifying 
vicissitudes,  and  the  degrading  retrocessions  which 
the  history  of  knowledge  presents,  mankind  are 
now  far  more  enlightened  than  at  any  former 
period.  But  is  it  a  fact,  that  real  wisdom,  moral 
purity,  and  true  happiness  have  always  kept  pace 
with  the  improvements  in  literature  and  science? 
Are  the  most  learned  and  scientific  nations,  and 
the  most  learned  and  scientific  individuals.^  always 
the  most  virtuous?  Are  luxury,  fraud,  violence, 
unprincipled  ambition, theviciousintercourse  of  the 
sexes,  and  the  various  kinds  of  intemperance,  less 
frequent  among  the  polished  and  enlightened 
nations  of  Europe,  than  among  the  untutored 
natives  of  America?  It  is  presumed  that  no  reflect- 
ing mind  will  answer  these  questions  in  the  affirma- 
tive. What,  then,  becomes  of  the  fundamental 
principle  of  those  who  hold  the  doctrine  in  ques- 
tion, viz.  That  the  progress  of  knowledge  is  alone 
sufficient  to  reform,  exalt,  and  finally  to  render  per- 
fect the  human  race?  If  this  principle  were  well 
founded,  we  should  find  virtue  and  happiness,  both 
in  individuals  and  societies,  bearing  an  exact  pro- 
portion to  the  advances  made  in  knowledge,  which 
experience  attests  is  far  from  being  the  case. 

But  it  will,  perhaps,  be  said,  that  the  principle 
of  experience  may  be  pressed  too  far;  that  it  is  not 
legitimate  reasoning  to  infer,  because  an  event  has 
never  yet  occurred,  that,  therefore,  it  never  can 

VOL.  II.  »Q 


298  Education. 

or  will  take  place.  Bat  if  a  certain  cause  pro-* 
duce  a  given  effect,  there  must  be  a  tendency  in 
that  cause  to  produce  this  effect.  Now,  if  this  ten- 
dency be  real,  when  the  cause  is  exerted  in  a  cer- 
tain degree,  the  effect  may  generally,  if  not  always 
be  looked  for  in  a  corresponding  degree.  But  if 
it  be  not  generally  true,  that  the  most  enlightened 
are  the  most  virtuous;  if  it  be  not  generally  true, 
that  in  proportion  as  men  make  progress  in  intel- 
lectual improvement,  they  make  progress  in  moral 
excellence;  we  may  with  confidence  conclude, 
that  these  two  species  of  improvement  do  not  ne- 
cessarily stand  in  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect  to 
each  other,  and,  therefore,  that  from  the  existence 
of  the  former,  we  cannot  legitimately  infer  the  ex- 
istence of  the  latter. 

Thirdly.  A  further  objection  to  the  doctrine  of 
human  perfectibility  has  been  drawn,  with  great 
force,  from  the  principle  of  population,  compared 
with  the  means  of  subsistence.  It  has  been  as- 
serted by  acute  and  well-informed  writers,  that 
the  progress  of  population,  when  unrestrained,  is 
always  in  a  geometrical  ratio,  and  that  the  increase 
of  the  means  of  subsistence  is,  under  the  most 
favourable  circumstances,  only  in  an  arithmetical 
ratio.  If  this  be  the  case,  it  is  evident,  that  the 
progress  of  population  must  continually,  unless  in 
extraordinary  circumstances,  be  checked  by  the 
want  of  subsistence;  that  these  two  will  ever  be, 
from  their  very  nature,  contending  forces,  and  will 
be  found  more  or  less,  in  the  most  advantageous 
states  of  society,  to  produce  want,  fraud,  violence, 
irregularity  in  the  sexual  intercourse,  disease,  and 
various  kinds  of  vice;  and,  as  the  natural  conse- 
quence of  these,  especially  in  their  combined  force, 
much  misery  and  degradation  to  man.  There  seems 
to  be  no  method  of  avoiding  this  conclusion,  but  by 
contending,  that  when  knowledge  shall  have  made 


Education.  299 

a  certain  degree  of  progress,  both  the  intercourse 
of  the  sexes,  and  the  necessity  of  food  and  raiment 
will  cease.  But  will  any  one  seriously  maintain 
that  such  events  are  probable?  Do  we  actually 
see  individuals  or  communities,  as  they  advance 
in  learning  and  refinement,  discover  less  propen- 
sity to  the  sexual  intercourse,  or  a  greater  dispo- 
sition or  ability  to  do  without  the  means  of  bodily 
sustenance?  It  will  not  be  pretended  that  either 
of  these  is  the  case.  But  as  long  as  the  propaga- 
tion of  the  human  species  continues  to  stand  on 
the  footing  and  to  depend  on  the  principles  which 
it  now  does;  and  as  long  as  food  and  raiment  are 
necessary  as  means  of  subsistence,  human  society 
must  be  doomed  to  exhibit  more  or  less  of  igno- 
rance, vice,  and  misery/ 

Fourthly.  It  is  evident  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
unlimited  efficacy  of  education,  and  the  perfecti- 
bility of  man,  is  wholly  inconsistent  with  the  scrip- 
ture account  of  the  creation  and  present  state  of 
man.  The  sacred  volume  teaches  us  that  we  are 
fallen  and  depraved  beings;  that  this  depravity  is 
total,  and  admits  of  no  remedy  but  by  the  grace 
declared  in  the  Gospel;  that  the  most  virtuous  will 
never  be  perfect  or  completely  holy  in  the  present 
world,  and  that  misery  and  death  are  the  unavoid- 
able lot  of  man  while  under  the  present  dispensa- 
tion. It  is  true,  the  same  scriptures  speak  of  a 
future  period  of  millennial  happiness  and  glory, 
when  divine  knowledge  shall  universally  abound, 
and  when  peace  and  happiness  shall  fill  the  world. 
But  the  Millennium  of  the  Bible  differs  essentially, 
both  in  its  cause  and  nature,  from  the  period 
which  the  advocates  of  this  philosophy,  falsely  so 


/  See  this  argument  placed  in  a  strong  and  interesting  point  of  light  in 
an  anonymous  work,  entitled,  An  Essay  on  Population;  a  work  which,  in 
force  of  reasoning,  and  in  candour  and  urbanity  of  discussion,  has  rarely  il 
ever  been  exceeded. 


300  Education, 

called,*"  describe  in  such  glowing  colours,  and  ex- 
pect with  so  much  confidence.     The  believers  in 
the  former  expect  it  to  be  produced  by  the  preva- 
lence of  that  divine  illumination,  and  that  evange- 
lical holmess  which  have  already  been  found  so 
transcendantly  efficacious  in  promoting  the  virtue 
and  happiness  of  men,  notwithstanding  the  obsta- 
cles which  have  stood  in  the  way  of  their  benign 
operation ;  while  Helvetius,  Condorcet,  God- 
win, and  their  disciples,  expect  every  thing  to  be 
accomplished  by  the  progress  of  knowledge,  which 
has  been  so  thoroughly  tried,  and  proved  so  la- 
mentably ineffectual.    The  Millennium  of  scripture 
is  represented  as  a  period  of  knowledge,  benevo- 
lence, peace,  purity,  and  universal  holiness;  but 
the  millennium  depicted  in  philosophic  dreams,  is 
an   absurd  portrait   of  knowledge  without  real 
wisdom,    of  benevolence  without  piety,  and  of 
purity  and  happiness  without  genuine  virtue. 

It  will  be  readily  granted,  indeed,  to  the  advo- 
cates of  this  delusive  system,  that  education  is  ex- 
tremely powerful;  that  much  of  the  difference  we 
observe  in  the  talents  and  dispositions  of  men  is 
to  be  ascribed  to  its  efficacy;  and  that  the  lovers 
of  knowledge  may  be  expected  hereafter  to  make 
such  improvements  in  literature,  such  discoveries 
in  science,  and  such  useful  reforms  in  the  plans 
of  instruction,  as  exceedingly  to  promote  the  gene- 
ral improvement  of  man.  But  before  the  doctrine 
of  perfectibility  can  be  adopted,  the  nature  of  man 
must  be  totally  changed;  his  present  habits  and 
wants  must  cease;  and  he  must  become  a  being  of 
an  essentially  different  character  from  that  which 
his  Creator  has  given  him.  The  husbandman,  by 
skilful  and  patient  culture,  may  highly  improve  the 

m  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  word  philosophy,  so  noble  and  elevated 
in  its  original  and  only  pioper  meaning,  should  be  so  often  prostituted  by 
,.n  application  to  the  reveries  of  pride,  ignorance  and  vanity. 


Education.  301 

quality  of  many  species  of  the  vegetable  tribes. 
He  may  cause  that  which,  in  a  neglected  spot,  was 
small,  feeble  and  unpromising,  to  become,  in  more 
favourable  circumstances,  vigorous,  luxuriant  and 
flourishing:  in  short,  it  is  not  easy  to  say  how  far, 
under  enlightened  and  unwearied  cultivation,  he 
may  carry  the  improvement  of  those  objects  to  which 
he  devotes  his  attention.  But  to  suppose  that  there 
are  no  limits  to  this  improvement;  to  suppose  that 
under  the  wisest  management  a  rose  might  be  so  ex- 
panded as  to  cover  a  field  of  many  acres,  or  a  stalk 
of  wheat  so  enlarged  as  to  vie  with  the  oak  of  the 
forest,  would  surely  be  the  height  of  extravagance 
and  folly. 

The  doctrine  of  human  perfectibility,  however, 
is  too  flattering  to  the  pride  of  man  not  to  have 
considerable  currency  among  certain  classes  of 
society.  Accordingly,  the  effects  of  this  doctrine 
may  be  distinctly  traced  in  many  parts  of  the  civi- 
lized world,  from  its  influence  in  seminaries  of 
learning,  on  the  general  interests  of  education, 
and  on  many  social  institutions.  That  this  influ- 
ence is  unfavourable,  will  not  be  questioned  for  a 
moment  by  those  who  consider  truth  and  utility  as 
inseparably  and  eternally  connected. 

From  the  foregoing  remarks  it  appears  that  edu- 
cation, in  the  course  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
underwent  important  revolutions.  That  so  far  as 
respects  the  extension  of  its  benefits  in  a  greater 
degree  to  the  female  sex,  and  to  almost  every 
grade  in  society;  the  multiplication  of  seminaries 
of  learning,  of  popular  elementary  works  for  the 
use  of  youth,  and  of  the  various  means  and  excite- 
ments to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge;  and  the 
decline  of  that  despotic  reign  which  the  dead  lan- 
guages held  for  three  preceding  centuries,  we  may 
look  back  on  the  period  under  consideration  as  a 
period  of  honourable  improvement:    but  that  in 


302  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

some  other  respects,  and  particularly  with  respect 
to  the  patient,  laborious  and  thorough  investiga- 
tion of  the  various  objects  of  knowledge ;  the  depth 
of  erudition ;  the  discipline  and  subordination  of 
academic  establishments ;  and  the  general  moral 
influence  of  literary  and  scientific  acquirements, 
the  last  age  cannot  with  propriety  boast  of  much 
progress. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

NATIONS  LATELY  BECOME  LITERARY. 

THE  last  century  is  not  only  distinguished  by 
numerous  discoveries,  and  by  rich  additions  to  the 
general  stock  of  science;  but  also  by  the  rise  of 
several  nations  from  obscurity  in  the  republic  of 
letters,  to  considerable  literary  and  scientific  emi- 
nence. To  attempt  to  give  a  full  view  of  the 
commencement  and  progress  of  a  taste  for  litera- 
ture in  those  nations,  would  lead  to  a  minuteness 
and  extent  of  discussion  altogether  beyond  the 
limits  of  our  plan.  The  design  of  the  present 
chapter,  therefore,  is  only  to  state  some  general 
facts,  and  to  connect  with  them  such  names  and 
collateral  events  as  may  appear  to  demand  notice, 
either  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  light  on  the 
principal  object  of  inquiry,  or  of  doing  honour  to 
meritorious  individuals.  In  the  list  about  to  be 
given  of  new  literary  countries,  it  will  not  be  pos- 
sible, for  various  reasons,  to  include  all  that 
might  with  propriety  be  mentioned.  Passing  by 
several  nations,  therefore,  of  inferior  character,  the 
most  important  of  those  which,  in  the  last  century 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  303 

have  become  literary,  are  Russia,  Germany,  and 
the  United  States  of  America.  To  each  of  these 
some  attention  will  be  separately  directed. 


RUSSIA. 


At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
Russia  had  scarcely  a  literary  existence.  Almost 
entirely  without  learned  men,  and  destitute  of  the 
means  of  acquiring  knowledge,  the  whole  Empire 
may  be  said,  with  little  exception,  to  have  been 
sunk  in  ignorance  and  barbarism.  The  language 
of  the  country  was  in  a  miserably  confused  and 
chaotic  state,  without  rules,  and  with  scarcely 
any  fixed  character;  and,  of  course,  no  writers  of 
taste  in  that  language  had  appeared.  It  is  true, 
the  art  of  printing  was  introduced  into  Russia  as 
early  as  the  sixteenth  century,  and  some  feeble  ef- 
forts were  made,  about  the  same  time,  to  enlighten 
and  civilize  the  people.  Efforts  still  more  vigorous 
and  extensive,  to  effect  the  same  purpose,  were 
made  in  the  seventeenth  century;  but  they  wrere 
soon  relaxed,  and  little  was  done  in  this  way  until 
Peter  the  Great  ascended  the  imperial  throne. 

The  crown  devolving  on  Peter,  at  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  he  early  formed  the  de- 
sign of  introducing  into  his  empire,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  various  arts  of  civilized  life,  and  that 
attention  to  letters  and  science  which  he  found  to 
be  so  useful  in  other  nations.  For  this  purpose  he 
travelled  into  foreign  countries;  made  himself  ac- 
quainted with  their  literary  and  scientific  institu- 
tions ;  sent  some  of  the  most  conspicuous  young 
noblemen  in  his  dominions  into  different  parts  of 
Europe,  for  the  purpose  of  improving  themselves 
in  literature;  and  invited  many  foreigners  of  dis- 
tinction to  settle  at  his  court.  He  established  a 
printing-office  in  Petersburgh,  for  publishing  books 


304  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

in  the  vulgar  tongue;  and  among  many  other 
works,  caused  a  large  edition  of  the  Bible  in  that 
language  to  be  printed  and  scattered  through  his 
dominions.  He  instituted  also,  besides  schools  of 
less  celebrity,  in  different  parts  of  the  empire,  a 
Mathematical  school,  a  Seminary  for  instruction  in 
navigation,  a  Museum  for  the  collection  of  curiosi- 
ties from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  an  Observatory, 
for  the  promotion  of  astronomical  science:  in 
short,  he  endeavoured,  as  far  as  possible,  to  trans- 
plant, from  all  other  nations,  into  his  own  coun- 
try, every  thing  that  appeared  to  him  ornamental 
or  useful.  By  these  means  he  produced  a  taste 
for  letters  and  science  among  some  of  the  higher 
classes  of  his  subjects,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
that  general  improvement  in  his  empire,  which  has 
since  risen  to  such  an  honourable  height." 

The  establishment  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences  forms  an  important  aera  in  the 
history  of  Russian  literature.  This  institution  owes 
its  origin  to  Peter  the  Great,  who,  during  his 
travels,  observing  the  advantages  of  public  societies 
for  the  promotion  of  useful  knowledge,  determined 
to  form  an  association  of  t,his  kind  in  his  own 
country.  For  this  purpose,  when  in  Germany,  he 
consulted  Leibnitz  and  Wolf,  and  availed  him- 
self of  their  learning  and  experience  in  the  forma- 
tion of  his  plan.  With  their  aid  he  at  length  com- 
pleted the  constitution  of  the  Academy,  and  signed  it 
on  the  tenth  of  February,  1724,  but  was  prevented 
by  his  sudden  death  from  putting  it  into  effective 
operation.  His  decease,  howTever,  did  not  defeat 
the  laudable  and  well-formed  design.  The  academy 
was  established  by  Catherine  I.  on  the  twenty- 


n  For  more  minute  Information  on  the  subject  of  Russian  literature  than 
it  is  convenient  to  give  in  the  present  sketch,  see  Coxe's  Travels,  and 
Tooke's  Survey  cf  the  Russian  Empire,  his  History  tf  Russia,  and  his  Life 
ff  Catherine  II. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  305 

first  of  December,  1725,  and  the  first  meeting  took 
place  two  days  afterwards.  This  Empress  not 
only  favoured  the  institution,  but  also  exercised 
great  munificence  towards  it.  She  made  a  liberal 
grant  of  money  for  the  support  of  fifteen  members 
eminent  for  learning  and  talents,  who  were  pen- 
sioned under  the  title  of  Professors  in  the  various 
branches  of  literature  and  science.  And  that 
nothing  might  be  omitted  which  could  promote 
her  leading  object,  she  invited  a  number  of  emi- 
nent foreigners  to  Petersburgh,  for  the  purpose  of 
filling  the  professorial  chairs,  for  which  provision 
had  been  made.  The  most  distinguished  of  these 
foreigners  were  Nicholas  and  Daniel  Bernoulli, 
the  two  De  Lisles,  Bulfinger,  Wolf,  and  Eu- 
ler,  whose  profound  erudition  and  scientific  indus- 
try could  not  fail  of  promoting  the  interests  of 
knowledge  wherever  they  were  placed. 

Perhaps  few  institutions  of  this  nature,  in  mo- 
dern times,  have  been  more  diligent  or  more  suc- 
cessful in  pursuing  the  objects  for  which  it  was 
formed  than  this  Academy.  Besides  its  published 
transactions,  which  amount,  it  is  believed,  to 
near  fifty  volumes,  and  which  are  full  of  valuable 
information  both  in  literature  and  science;  its 
members  have  done  much,  both  in  their  official 
and  private  capacities,  to  diffuse  almost  every 
branch  of  useful  knowledge  throughout  the  empire. 
Perhaps  no  country  can  boast  of  having  produced 
within  the  space  of  a  few  years,  such  a  number 
of  excellent  publications  on  its  internal  state,  its 
natural  history,  its  topography,  and  geography, 
and  on  the  manners,  customs,  and  languages  of 
different  nations,  as  have  issued  from  the  press  of 
the  Academy. 

These  exertions  of  Peter  and  Catharine 
were  aided  by  some  of  their  native  subjects,  who 
began  to  perceive  the  importance  of  literature. 

VOL.  II.  %k 


306  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

and  to  form  plans  for  the  diffusion  of  it  among 
the  people.  It  was  in  the  reign  of  the  former, 
that  those  improvements  in  the  Russian,  or  Scla- 
vonian  language,  commenced,  which  have  since 
made  such  honourable  progress.  To  Theophanes 
Prokopovitch,0  Archbishop  of  Novogorod,  a 
man  of  learning  and  taste,  and  a  native  of  Russia, 
much  honour  is  due,  for  labouring  to  promote 
among  his  countrymen  a  taste  for  polite  literature. 
He  not  only  cultivated,  and  endeavoured  to  extend 
the  influence  of  learning,  during  his  life,  but 
likewise  left  a  legacy,  to  be  applied  to  the  same 
object  after  his  decease. 

In  this  laudable  zeal  for  promoting  the  lite- 
rary interests  of  his  country,  Theophanes  was  fol- 
lowed by  Lomonozof,  who,  it  was  before  observed, 
has  been  styled  the  great  refiner  of  the  Russian 
language/  His  labours  may  be  considered  as  form- 
ing an  era  in  the  literary  progress  of  his  country, 
and  are  always  mentioned  as  having  been  eminent- 
ly conducive  to  this  progress. 

During  the  short  reign  of  Peter  II.  the  Aca- 

o  Theophanes  Prokopovitch  was  born  in  Russia,  in  1681,  and  died 
Archbishop  of  Novogorod,  in  1736.  After  receiving  as  good  an  educa- 
tion as  his  country  afforded,  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  resided  three 
years,  and  where  his  literary  and  scientific  acquirements  were  greatly  ex- 
tended. He  was  profoundly  learned,  not  only  in  Latin,  Greek  and  He- 
brew literature,  but  also  in  Philosophy  and  Theology.  He  was  the  first 
Russian  divine  who  published  a  regular  systematic  view  of  the  doctrines 
of  his  church.  His  principal  work  is  composed  in  Latin,  under  the  title 
of  Christiana  Orthodoxa  Tbeologia.  His  discourses  are  deemed  classical  per- 
formances. 

p  Lomonozof  was  the  son  of  a  fishmonger  at  Kolmogori,  in  Russia. 
He  was  born  in  the  year  1711,  and  died  in  1764,  in  the  54th  year  of  his 
age.  He  was  fortunately  taught  to  read,  an  accomplishment  by  no  means 
common  among  persons  of  such  humble  origin  in  Russia.  His  genius  for 
poetry  was  first  kindled  by  the  perusal  of  the  Song  of  Solomon,  done  into 
verse  by  Polotskv,  in  a  very  rude  and  miserable  manner.  He  fled 
from  his  father,  who  would  have  compelled  him  to  a  disagreeable  marriage, 
and  took  refuge  in  a  monastery  at  Moscow,  where  he  had  an  abundant  op- 
portunity of  indulging  his  taste  for  letters.  He  was  afterwards  taken  un- 
der the  patronage  of  the  Imperial  Academy  at  Petersburg!},  and  proved  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  literary  characters  of  the  ag-c.  His  works  were 
collected  after  his  death,  in  three  volumes  octavo. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary,  307 

demy,  and  the  general  interests  of  literature,  being 
neglected  by  the  court,  greatly  declined.     The  sa- 
laries of  the  professors  were  discontinued,  and  an 
almost    universal  disregard  to   science  prevailed. 
When  the  Empress  Anne  came  to  the  throne, 
the  court  again  patronized  the  cause  of  letters  and 
science.     She  revived  the  academy;  enlarged  the 
provision  which  had  been  made  for  its  most  active 
members;  added  a  seminary  for  the  instruction  of 
youth,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  profes- 
sors;  and  did   much  for  the  diffusion  of  liberal 
knowledge.     Both  the  academy,    and  the  semi- 
nary connected  with  it,  flourished  for  some  time, 
under  the  direction  of  Baron  Korf;  but  upon  his 
death,  towards  the  latter  end  of  Anne's  reign,  a 
person  without  erudition,  wisdom  or  enterprize, 
being  appointed  President,  many  of  the  most  able 
and  useful  members  quitted  Russia  in   disgust. 
But  at  the  access  of  the  Empress  Elizabeth,  new 
life  and  vigour  were  again  restored  to  this  institu- 
tion ;  the  original  plan  was  still  more  enlarged  and 
improved;  some  of  the  most  learned  foreigners 
were  again  drawn  to  Petersburgh ;  and,  what  was 
considered  a  most  promising  omen  for  the  litera- 
ture of  Russia,  two  natives  of  the  country,  Lomo- 
nozof,  before  mentioned,  and  Romofsky,  another 
man  of  genius  and  learning,  were  enrolled  among 
the  members  of  the  Academy. 

But  when  Catharine  II.  came  to  the  imperial 
throne,  a  new  and  illustrious  era  commenced. 
Her  exertions  for  the  encouragement  of  literature 
were  more  spirited  and  liberal  than  those  of  any  of 
her  predecessors,  excepting  Peter,  and  more 
extended  and  successful  than  even  his.  She  fos- 
tered the  academy  with  the  utmost  zeal ;  provided 
additional  funds  for  its  more  ample  support;  pre- 
vailed on  a  number  of  learned  foreigners  to  accept 
of  professorships  in  the  academy,  and  other  places 


308  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

of  honour  and  profit  at  her  court  j  caused  the  geo- 
graphy and  natural  history  of  her  empire  to  be 
carefully  explored ;  and  gave  a  new  spring  to  the 
growth  of  literature  and  science  in  every  part  of 
her  dominions  in  which  they  had  been  planted. 
But  there  were  two  events  in  the  reign  of  Catha- 
rine, which  deserve  to  be  particularly  recorded, 
and  which  must  be  supposed  to  have  had  a  consi- 
derable influence  in  promoting  the  diffusion  of 
knowledge  among  her  subjects. 

The  first  is,  the  order  issued,  in  the  year  1768, 
by  the  Empress,  for  translating  a  number  of  stand- 
ard zvorks,  in  various  languages,  into  the  Russian 
language,  thereby,  at  once,  improving  the  national 
tongue,  and  extending  a  knowledge  of  some  of 
the  best  publications  of  taste  and  science  through- 
out her  empire.  For  defraying  the  expense  of  this 
undertaking  she  granted  an  annual  sum,  and  en- 
gaged in  the  work  some  of  her  most  learned  sub- 
jects, by  whose  labours  many  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  classics  have  been  presented  in  a  respectable 
Russian  dress  ;q  and  a  number  of  the  most  valua- 
ble works  in  the  English,  French,  and  German 
languages,  given  to  the  inhabitants  of  that  coun- 
try in  their  own  dialect.  A  considerable  portion 
of  these  translators  were  natives  of  Russia,  but 
the  greater  number  were  learned  foreigners. 

The  other  event  referred  to  is  the  establishment 
of  normal  Schools,  by  Catharine,  in  every  pro- 
vince in  her  empire.  This  establishment  com- 
menced about  the  year  1780,  when  places   of  in- 

q  Among  the  numerous  versions  made  in  consequence  of  this  imperial 
order,  the  following  are  worthy  of  particular  notice.  The  works  of  Plato 
have  been  translated  by  Sid  er  of  sky  and  Pakhomof  ;  the  works  of  He- 
siod,  by  Fryanfynofsky  ;  Homer's  Iliad,  by  Yekimof  ;  the  JEneis  and 
Georgics  of  Virgil,  by  YEKIMOF,  and  also  byPETROF;  the  Metamorphoses 
of  Ovid,  by  Kofitzky  ;  and  the  Odes  of  Horace,  by  Popofsky.  To  at- 
tempt an  enumeration  of  the  English,  French,  and  German  classical  works 
which  have  been  naturalized  in  Russia,  would  exceed  the  reasonable  limits 
of  a  note. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  309 

struction  were  formed,  not  only  for  the  children 
of  the  nobility,  but  also  for  those  of  inferior  rank. 
For  this  object  the  Empress  did  not  content  her- 
self with  making  ample  pecuniary  provision,  but 
also  caused  elementary  books,  for  the  instruction 
of  youth  in  religion  and  morals,  as  well  as  letters, 
to  be  composed  or  translated,  and  distributed 
throughout  her  dominions.  It  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  add,  that  the  influence  of  these  institutions 
has  been  benign  and  extensive. 

Besides  the  seminaries  of  learning  already  men- 
tioned, the  various  sovereigns  of  Russia,  during 
the  last  age,  and  especially  Catharine  II.  formed 
numerous  societies  for  the  promotion  of  Arts,  Ma- 
nufactures and  Agriculture ;  established  Libraries, 
not  only  in  Petersburgh,  but  also  in  other  parts  of 
the  empire;  made  large  collections  of  specimens 
in  the  Fine  Arts,  and  endeavoured,  by  other  me- 
thods, to  awaken  the  attention  of  an  ignorant  and 
barbarous  people,  to  the  improvements  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  the  importance  of  knowledge. 

Perhaps  it  is  not  saying  too  much  to  pronounce, 
that  notwithstanding  the  detestable  character  of 
Catharine  II.  considered  in  a  moral  view,  and 
notwithstanding  the  odious  despotism  which  she 
exercised,  no  crowned  head  ever  did  more,  in  the 
same  length  of  time,  to  raise  the  character,  and 
promote  the  general  welfare  of  her  subjects.  And 
when  it  is  considered  how  low  she  found  the 
greater  part  of  these  subjects  sunk  in  ignorance 
and  brutality,  at  her  accession  to  the  throne,  it  is 
astonishing  that  her  efforts  were  attended  with  so 
much  success. 

When  this  Empress  began  her  reign,  Yittle  at- 
tention had  been  devoted  to  Natural  Philosophy, 
or  Natural  History,  in  her  dominions:  but  within 
a  few  years  past,  much  has  been  done  in  these 
branches  of  science,  by  a  number  of  persons,  both 


310  Nations  lately  become  Literary.  . 

natives  and  foreigners.    Among  the  former,  Lepe* 

CHIN,  GULDENSTJEDT,  OzERETZKOFSKY,  SoLOKOF, 

Scjyef,  Rumofsky,  and  Florinsky,  deserve  to 
be  mentioned  with  particular  respect.  Among  the 
latter,  Pallas/  Gmelin,  Falk,  ^Epinus,  Georgi, 
Renovantz,  and  several  others,  hold  an  honour- 
able rank.  By  the  labours  and  writings  of  these 
philosophers,  a  considerable  taste  has  been  excited 
in  Russia,  for  the  inquiries  to  which  they  directed 
their  attention. 

In  Mathematical  Science,  Kotelntkof,  Rumof- 
sky, and  Inokhodzof,  have  shown  themselves  ac- 
complished in  a  very  respectable  degree,  by  their 
memoirs  in  the  transactions  of  the  Academy.  Be- 
sides these,  Koselsky,  Anitschkof,  Golovin, 
and  Siretuschkin,  have  made  distinct  publications 
on  various  branches  of  the  Mathematics,  which, 
besides  doing  honour  to  their  authors,  have  con- 
tributed to  extend  the  knowledge  of  this  science 
among  their  countrymen.  For  contributions  to 
the  science  of  Geography,  Russia  is  still  more  dis- 
tinguished. The  Statistical  Survey  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  by  Pleschtscheyef,  is  a  most  instructive 
and  valuable  work.     In  addition  to  this,  the  vari- 


r  Peter  Simon  Pallas  was  born  at  Berlin,  in  the  year  1741,  and 
is  the  son  of  a  distinguished  surgeon  of  that  city.  After  enjoying  every  ad- 
vantage to  be  derived  from  the  Universities  of  Halle  and  Gottingen,  he 
travelled  into  other  parts  of  Germany,  spent  some  time  in  Holland  and  in 
England,  and  every  where  directed  particular  attention  to  Natural  History, 
besides  improving  himself  in  other  branches  of  knowledge.  He  was, 
early  in  life,  invited  by  Catharine  II.  to  Petersburgh,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Scien- 
ces, and  where  he  has  ever  since  maintained  a  growing  reputation  for  ta- 
lents and  learning.  Professor  Pallas  is  probably  the  most  accomplished 
Naturalist  now  living.  His  Elenchus  Zoophytorum  ;  his  Miscellanea  Zoolo- 
gica ;  his  Nova  Species  Quadrupedum  e  Glirium  ordine  ;  his  Enutneratio  Plan- 
tarum  qua  in  Horto  Procopii,  a  Demidof  Moscua  <vi<uent ;  his  Neue  Nordischg 
Beytrage;  his  Icones  Insectarum,  &c.  and  his  Flora  Pussica,  are  too  well  known 
and  too  highly  esteemed  among  natural  historians,  to  render  an  account  of 
their  respective  merits  necessary.  This  great  man  now  resides  in  Crim 
Tartary,  on  an  estate  granted  him  by  the  Empress,  where,  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  dignified  leisure,  he  devotes  himself  to  his  favowite  pursuits. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  311 

t)us  publications  of  Suyef,  Irodionof,  Kotoftzof, 
and  Hackman,  are  all  conspicuous  and  useful. 

A  little  more  than  thirty  years  ago,  the  science 
of  Medicine  was  wholly  uncultivated  in  Russia. 
It  is  said,  that  scarcely  three  books  had  been  pub- 
lished on  this  subject  in  the  whole  empire,  antece- 
dently to  the  year  1770.     Since  that  period,  the 
progress  of  medical  knowledge  has  been  astonish- 
ingly great,  and  the  number  of  medical  publica- 
tions remarkably  increased.     To  Professor  Ambo- 
dick,  his  countrymen  are  indebted  for  valuable 
publications  on  anatomy,  physiology,  materia  me- 
dica,  and  obstetrics,  besides  translations  of  some 
important  works  on  different  branches  of  the  heal- 
ing art.     The  medical  works  of  Schumliansky, 
Tichorsky,  Samoilovitch,   and   Terekhofsky, 
both  original  compositions  and   translations,   are 
also  mentioned  with  applause  by  the  literary  his- 
torians of  that  country.     It  is,  moreover,  proper 
to  take  notice,  that  several  foreigners  of  distinc- 
tion have  published,  on  various  medical  subjects, 
in  the  Russian  language.     The  names  of  Bacher- 
acht,  Vien,  Pektn,  Uhden,  Mohrenheim,  and 
Ellisen,  belong  to  this  list,  and  are  represented 
as  holding  a  respectable  station  in  the  public  opi- 
nion at  Petersburgh. 

In  Historical  composition,  Russia  has  lately 
produced  some  specimens  worthy  of  notice.  The 
History  of  Russia,  by  Schtscherbatof,  is  said  to 
hold  the  first  place  in  the  catalogue.  Besides  this, 
the  various  productions  of  Gollikof,  Tumansky, 
Tschulkof,  Bogdanovitch,  and  Vagonof,  are 
generally  mentioned  among  the  respectable  works 
of  this  class.  In  Poetry,  it  was  before  observed, 
that  Russia  had  given  birth  to  works  of  consider- 
able merit;  and  also  that  they  were  almost  wholly 
the  productions  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The 
Services  rendered  to  this  branch  of  literature  by 


312  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

Lomonozof,  Sumorokof,  Kherashof,  and  Ka- 
ramsin,  were  particularly  mentioned  in  a  former 
chapter.  Besides  these,  Kni^shnin,  Derschaven, 
Petrof,  Van  Wisin,  and  Yelaghen,  are  enu- 
merated, with  great  respect,  among  those  Russian 
poets,  who  are  either  now  living  or  lately  deceased. 

Even  the  Fine  Arts  have  not  been  without  some 
zealous  and  able  cultivators  in  the  empire  under 
review.  In  Painting,  Levitsky  and  Koslof,  be- 
sides several  foreigners,  are  much  distinguished; 
the  former  in  portrait,  the  latter  in  history.  In 
Sculpture,  Schubin,  Maschalof,  Ivanof,  Gar- 
deyef,  and  Khailof,  are  mentioned  as  respect- 
able artists.  And  in  Engraving,  Skorodumof  and 
Schlepper,  besides  others,  drawn  from  different 
countries,  afford  abundant  evidence  that,  even  in 
the  inhospitable  climate  of  Russia,  the  elegant  arts 
can  live  and  flourish. 

The  study  of  Languages  has  been,  for  a  number 
of  years,  more  cultivated  in  Russia  than  could  have 
been  expected,  considering  the  infant  state  of  li- 
terature in  that  country.  Besides  all  the  attention 
paid  to  the  cultivation  of  the  vulgar  tongue,  which 
was  before  noticed,  and  the  numerous  instances  of 
profound  acquaintance  with  the  best  writers  of 
Greece  and  Rome;5  considerable  labour  has  been 
bestowed,  by  a  number  of  the  literati  of  that  em- 
pire, on  the  study  of  various  living  languages. 
The  astonishing  monument  of  learning  and  indus- 
try, in  this  branch  of  inquiry,  given  to  the  public 
by  Professor  Pallas,  was  mentioned  in  a  former 


s  Among  many  persons  who  might  be  mentioned  a*  having  distinguished 
themselves  by  their  attainments  in  classic  literature,  it  would  be  improper 
not  to  take  some  notice  of  Plato,  Archbishop  of  Moscow,  and  Euge- 
nius,  a  naturalized  foreigner,  Archbishop  of  Slavensk  and  Kherson.  The 
former  has  the  character  of  a  profound  scholar;  but  the  latter  is,  perhaps, 
still  more  celebrated  for  his  translation  of  the  Eclogues  and  Georgics  of  Vir- 
gil, into  Greek  hexameters,  which  was,  a  few  years  since,  splendidly 
printed  in  folio,  at  the  espense  of  Prince  Potemkin. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary,  3 1 3 

chapter,  as  doing  him  great  honour.  The  trans- 
lator Y.erig,  is  supported  by  the  academy,  to 
study  the  Mongolian  language  among  that  people. 
Leontief,  of  the  college  of  foreign  affairs,  has 
translated  a  great  number  of  works  from  the  Chi- 
nese language,  and  may  be  considered  among  the 
most  accomplished  scholars  in  Chinese  literature 
now  living  in  Europe.  And  there  is  no  want  of 
works  in  Russia,  for  learning  a  large  portion  of 
the  modern  European  languages. 

Literary  Journals  have  never  had  much  encou- 
ragement or  circulation  in  Russia.  Several  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  establish  them,  and  they 
have  obtained  a  slender  support  for  a  time,  but  the 
state  of  literature  in  that  country  is  not  sufficiently 
popular  to  render  works  of  this  kind  generally 
sought  after  and  read.  Newspapers  are  also  few 
in  number,  and  comparatively  confined  in  their 
dissemination.  The  nature  of  the  government  con- 
spires with  various  other  disadvantageous  circum- 
stances, to  impose  restraints  on  their  circulation. 

During  the  last  four  years  of  the  century  under 
review,  literature,  it  is  believed,  has  received  much 
less  encouragement  from  the  governing  powers  in 
Russia  than  for  a  considerable  period  before.  And 
indeed,  after  all,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  that 
the  advantages  of  education  have  by  no  means  had 
that  general  and  equal  diffusion  in  the  empire 
which  is  to  be  wished,  and  might  have  been  ex- 
pected; and  that  a  large  portion  of  the  inhabitants 
are  still  sunk  in  a  degree  of  ignorance  and  bar- 
barism, which  the  exertions  of  another  century, 
and  of  another  succession  of  enterprizing  sove- 
reigns, will  perhaps  not  be  more  than  sufficient  to 
remove. 


vol.  it.  t% 


3 1 4  Nations  lately  become  Literary* 


GERMANY. 


It  can  scarcely  be  said,  with  strict  propriety^ 
that  Germany  has  lately  become  literary;  for  long 
before  the  period  under  consideration,  there  was 
much,  both  of  literature  and  of  science,  in  that 
empire.  Those  who  have  any  knowledge  of  the 
great  contributors  to  human  knowledge,  whose 
names  adorn  the  history  of  Europe,  in  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries,  need  not  be  in- 
formed, that  of  this  number,  Germany  may  claim 
a  very  respectable  portion.  But  the  cultivation  of 
the  German  language  -,  the  publication  of  dignified 
and  popular  works  in  that  language-  and  especi- 
ally the  commencement  of  a  just  taste  in  Ger- 
man literature,  may  all,  with  truth,  be  ascribed 
to  the  eighteenth  century. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  period,  all  works  of 
importance  in  Germany  were  written  in  the 
Latin  language.  And  it  seemed  then  to  be  a  pre- 
valent opinion  among  the  literati  of  that  country, 
that  the  compilation  of  huge  folios,  interspersed 
with  innumerable  quotations  from  writers  in  all 
known  languages,  was  the  most  unequivocal  proof 
of  literary  merit.  For  this  reason,  the  greater 
part  of  German  productions,  prior  to  the  period 
under  review,  were  proverbially  tedious  and  dull, 
and  were  seldom  sought  after  by  the  learned  of 
other  nations ;  insomuch,  that  it  was  often  and 
seriously  questioned,  whether  genius  could  grow 
in  a  German  soil. 

The  first  conspicuous  writer  who  employed  the 
German  language,  in  important  scientific  publica- 
tions, was  Christ.  Thomasius,  the  celebrated  me- 
taphysician and  moral  philosopher,  who  died  in 
1728.  After  him  Wolf  was  the  next  who  made  use 
of  the  vulgar  tongue,  in  treating  of  philosophical 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  3 1 5 

subjects.  This  example  was  soon  followed  by 
Mosheim,  Schlegel,  and  others,  of  distinguished 
reputation  in  various  species  of  composition/ 

But  though  the  employment  of  the  German  lan- 
guage in  philosdphical  works  began  thus  early  in 
the  last  century,  yet  it  must  be  confessed,  that  in 
the  early  part  of  the  century  this  language  was  ex- 
tremely rude,  harsh,  and  disgusting  ;  exhibiting  a 
motly  mixture  of  Latin,  French,  and  Italian  words 
and  idioms,  incorporated,  without  judgment  or 
taste  with  the  original  Gothic  stores.'"  It  is  true, 
much  was  done,  about  this  time,  by  several  learned 
men,  for  regulating  the  Grammar  of  their  verna- 
cular tongue.  K.  Dunkelberg,  whodiedin  1708, 
was  the  first  conspicuous  German  who  perceived, 
and  publicly  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  regularly 
instructing  the  youth  of  his  country  in  their  native 
language.  After  him,  Schilter,  Leibnitz,  Von 
Stade,  Steinbach,  Wachter,  and  Frisch,  wrote 
largely  on  the  German  language,  and  contributed 
much  to  its  regulation  and  refinement.  Still,  how- 
ever, after  all  the  labours  of  these  philologists,  per- 
sons of  tolerable  correctness  of  taste  were  much 
dissatisfied  with  the  corrupt  jargon  which  con- 
tinued to  be  in  vogue. 

About  the  year  1740,  J.  C.  Gottsched  be- 
came animated  with  a  laudable  zeal  for  the  im- 
provement of  his  native  language,  and  engaged 

*  For  a  knowledge  of  many  of  the  facts  and  names  contained  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages,  the  Author  acknowledges  himself  to  be  indebted  to  the 
Historical  Account,  &c.  before  quoted, and  ascribed  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Will, 
how  of  this  city. 

v  In  the  sixteenth  century  some  specimens  of  German  style  were  given 
to  the  public,  much  superior  to  any  that  appeared  in  the  seventeenth. 
The  works  of  Martin  Luther,  the  great  reformer,  exhibit,  we  arc 
tpld,  a  correctness,  variety,  and  energy  of  diction,  not  to  be  met  with  in 
the  works  of  any  writer  that  preceded  him,  nor  indeed  of  any  that  im- 
mediately followed  him.  Through  the  greater  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century  this  language  was  in  a  course  of  degeneracy ;  and  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  eighteenth,  was  found  in  a  condition  which  loudly  demanded 
reform. 


316  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

with  ardour  in  various  undertakings  for  this  pur* 
pose.     And  though  his  own  style   was  far  from 
being  a  model  of  that  purity  and  elegance   for 
which  he  contended;  yet  his  labours  were  by  no 
means  without  considerable  effect.     He  wrote  se- 
veral works  on  the  subject,  which  were  extensively 
useful.     He  engaged  in  controversies  relating  to 
philological  questions,  with  Bodmer,  Breitinger, 
and  others,  which  also  served  to  throw  important 
light  on  the  German  language.     And  he  directed 
the  attention  of  his  countrymen  to  the  English  and 
French  classic  writers,  whose  influence  in  promot- 
ing the  same  object  was  very  sensible.     In  short, 
before    the  death  of  this  indefatigable  labourer, 
which  happened  in  1766,  he  had  done  much  to 
discountenance  the  wretched  models  which  were 
before  implicitly  followed,  and  to  bring  into  view 
principles  and  examples  more  worthy  of  imitation. 
While   Gottsched  was  engaged  in  these  useful 
exertions,  the  great  object  of  his  pursuit  was  aided 
by  the   writings  of  Poposwitsch  and  Meiners, 
who    both   published    extensive    and    important 
works  on  the  German  language,  and  made  con- 
tributions towards  its  improvement  which  do  them 
much  honour.     But  to  no  individual  now   living 
is  this  language  more  indebted  than  to  the  cele- 
brated J.  C.  Adelung,  who  was  mentioned  in  a 
former  chapter.     His  Grammar  and  Dictionary  of 
the  High-German  language11  are  famous  throughout 
Europe,  and  have  probably  done  more  to  explore 
the  etymology,  to  correct  the  orthography,  and  to 
regulate  the  syntax  of  that   language,  than  any 
writer  who  appeared  before  him.     To  the  above 

v  The  language  spoken  in  the  middle  and  southern  parts  of  Germany 
is  called  the  High-German,  of  which  that  dialect  which  prevails  in  Upper 
Saxony,  especially  in  Leipsic,  Dresden,  &c.  is  reckoned  the  most  pure  and 
elegant.  In  Lower  Saxony  and  Westphalia  the  country  people  speak  a  lan- 
guage called  Flat-German,  or  Low- Dutch,  but  still  differing  greatly  from, 
the  Low-Dutch  of  the  United  Netherlands. 


Nd tions  lately  become  Literary .  317 

named  eminent  cultivators  of  the  German  lan- 
guage we  might  add,  Voightel,Fulda,Moritz, 
and  many  more,  who  have  published  works  on  the 
subject,  of  various  degrees  of  merit,  and  who  are 
mentioned  with  honour  among  the  useful  philolo- 
gists of  that  country. 

But  besides  the  numerous  and  valuable  improve- 
ments which  the  German  language  owes  to  the 
professed  writers  on  the  subject,  mentioned  in 
the  preceding  paragraphs,  much  may  be  ascribed 
to  the  circulation  and  influence  of  those  specimens 
of  good  writing  in  that  language,  with  which  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  especially  the  latter  half 
of  it,  abounded.  In  this  list,  the  first  in  chrono- 
logical order  which  deserve  to  be  mentioned  are 
the  publications  of  Bodmer,  Breitinger,  Gel- 
lert,  Rabener,  Cramer,  and  a  few  others,  who 
furnished  examples  of  regular  and  polished  style 
decidedly  superior  to  any  former  models.  The 
period  in  which  these  men  wrote  is  represented  as 
the  first  grand  epocha  in  the  progress  of  German 
prose.  It  was  in  this  period  that  the  French  classic 
writers  began  to  be  better  known  in  Germany, 
through  the  medium  of  translations,  by  means  of 
which  German  style  was  enriched  with  many  new 
words,  idioms  and  graces. 

The  second  epocha  in  German  style  is  repre- 
sented to  be  that  which  was  formed  by  the  authors 
of  the  Berlinschen  Litter aturbrief en,  and  especially 
by  Lessing  and  Moses  Mendleshon.  About 
this  time  the  British  classic  writers  began  to  be 
studied  with  much  ardour  in  Germany;  and  many 
of  them  being  translated,  and  considered  as  models 
by  some  of  the  most  respectable  authors  of  that 
country,  gave  rise  to  new  and  important  improve- 
ments in  their  style.  The  beauties  of  Milton, 
Addison,  Swift,  and  Pope,  began  not  only  to  be 
relished,  but  also  to  be  copied  by  the  German  !:- 


3 1 8  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

terati,  and  were  soon  afterwards,  in  a  considerable 
degree,  transfused  into  their  own  tongue.  From 
this  period  we  are  told  that  German  prose  became 
more  concise,  copious,  and  energetic,  as  well  as 
more  lofty  and  bold  in  its  port. 

The  third  and  last  epocha  in  the  progress  of 
German  style  is  that  formed  by  the  writings  of  a 
number  of  eminent  men,  since  the  improvements 
of  Lessing  and  his  contemporaries.  Among  these, 
Klopstock,  Zimmerman,  Wieland,Unzer,  Her- 
der,"" Garve,  Engel,  Lavater,  and  a  number  of 
others,  hold  a  high  place.  These  writers  enriched 
the  language  in  which  they  wrote  with  new  words 
and  phrases;  taught  new  and  improved  modes  of 
constructing  periods;  introduced  ornaments  of 
speech  more  simple,  natural,  and  elegant,  than  those 
which  had  been  commonly  in  use  before;  and  in- 
fused a  sprightliness  and  vigour  into  their  pages 
which  scarcely  any  preceding  writers  had  attained. 
The  German  constitution  has  confined  eloquence 
almost  entirely  to  the  pulpit.  We  must  therefore 
look  to  the  Sermons  of  that  country  for  some  of 
the  best  specimens  of  style.  Mosheim  was  the 
first  who  introduced  any  kind  of  refinement  and 
elegance  of  composition  into  the  sacred  desk.  He 
was  followed  bySpALDiNG,  who  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  pulpit  orator  in  Germany,  who,  in  a  supe- 
rior degree,  united  simplicity  with  elegance,  energy, 
and  pathos.  Zollikofer  stands  in  the  same  high 
rank,  with  the  addition  of  a  philosophical  cast  to 
the  elegant  and  popular  form  of  his  discourses.  Be- 
sides these,  the  names  of  Sturm,  Cramer,  Sack, 
Less,  Seiler,  Reinitard,  Wurz,  Braun,  and 
many  others,  are  considerably  distinguished  in  the 
annals  of  sacred  eloquence. 

iv  Of  all  the  German  writers  it  is  generally  supposed  that  Klopstock, 
Lessing,  Wieland,  and  Herder,  discover  the  most  profound  and  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  their  native  language, 


Katio7is  lately  become  Literary.  3 1 9 

From  all  these  sources,  the  German  language, 
within  the  last  fifty  years,  has  drawn  improvements 
so  rich  and  numerous,  that  it  is  said  to  be  one  of 
the  most  copious  and  energetic  languages  in  Eu- 
rope. It  has  gained  astonishingly  in  convenient 
and  sonorous  compounds,  in  elegant  idioms,  and 
graceful  inversions;  insomuch,  that  the  German 
writer,  instead  of  being  cramped,  in  every  step  of 
his  progress,  by  a  narrow,  confused,  and  unsettled 
jargon,  as  was  the  case  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  has  now  a  language  at  com- 
mand, rich,  various,  of  most  accommodating  pli- 
ancy, abundantly  adequate  to  all  his  wants,  and 
capable  of  being  modified  to  as  great  a  degree  of 
perspicuity,  suavity,  and  harmony,  as  almost  any 
modern  tongue. 

In  consequence  or  these  improvements  in  the 
German  language,  it  has  been  adopted,  within  a 
few  years  past,  in  most  of  the  courts  of  the  empire, 
instead  of  the  French,  which  was  formerly  the 
court  language  in  almost  every  part  of  Germany. 
Nor  is  its  currency  confined  to  the  German  empire. 
It  has  lately  become  one  of  the  fashionable  lan- 
guages of  Europe,  and  the  acquisition  of  it  is  now 
considered  nearly  as  important  a  part  of  polite 
education,  as  the  acquisition  of  the  French  or 
English. 

While  the  German  language  was  undergoing 
this  radical  and  important  reform,  other  objects  of 
a  literary  and  scientific  nature  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  the  learned  men  of  that  country,  and  were 
pursued  with  a  degree  of  diligence  and  success 
which  does  them  and  the  age  which  gave  them 
birth  the  highest  honour.  A  fewT  facts  and  names 
only,  out  of  the  multitude  which  occur,  can  be 
mentioned  in  this  place. 

Natural  or  Mechanical  Philosophy  was  culti- 
vated by  a  few  distinguished  Germans  in  the  se- 


.$20  Nations  lately  become  Liter a?y. 

venteenth  century;  but  in  the  eighteenth  the  num- 
ber of  this  class  of  philosophers  astonishingly  in- 
creased in  every  part  of  the  empire.  The  names 
of  Leibnitz,  Wolf,  Kastner,  Lambert,  Mayer, 
Van  Zach,  Herschel,  Boze,  Winckler, Ludolf, 
Richter,Woltman,VonHumboldt,Schroeter, 
and  Burckhardt,  are  only  a  small  portion  of 
those  whose  fame  has  filled  the  scientific  world, 
as  the  authors  of  important  discoveries  and  im- 
provements in  philosophy. 

In  Natural  History  the  Germans  made  wonder- 
ful progress  in  the  course  of  the  last  age.  The 
amount  of  what  they  accomplished  in  this  branch 
of  science  during  the  seventeenth  century  was 
comparatively  small.  Soon  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  eighteenth  century  better  prospects 
opened,  and  since  that  time  have  been  very  honour- 
ably realized.  No  naturalist  needs  to  be  reminded 
of  the  invaluable  service  rendered  to  Zoology  by 
Madame  Mer  ian,  Rosel,  Klein,  Ludwig,Frisch, 
Zimmerman,  Blumenbach,  Soemmering,  Bloch, 
Muller,  Leske,  and  Forster.  Additions,  not 
less  important,  or  less  known,  have  been  made, 
within  the  same  time,  to  Botanical  Science,  by 
Knaut,  Gartner,  Hedwig,  Schreber,  Jacquin, 
Breidel,  Gmelin,  Wildenow,  Sprengel,  and 
many  others.  While  Mineralogy 'has  received  im- 
mense improvements  from  the  hands  of  Henkel, 
Woltersdorf,  Vogel,  Cartheuser,  Voight, 
Gellert,Raspe,Pott,Margraaf,  and  Werner. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  period  under  con- 
sideration still  less  had  been  done  in  Chemistry^ 
by  the  German  philosophers,  than  in  either  of  the 
preceding  departments  of  science.  How  great  an 
amount  of  discovery  and  of  useful  experiment  they 
have  presented  to  the  public  since  that  time,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  state.  The  labours  of  Stahl,  Junc- 
ker,    Pott,   Marge  a  a  f,   Net;  max,  Klaproth, 


Nations  lately  betome  Literary.  321 

Crell,  Meyer,  Ingenhouz,  Jacquin,  and  Von 
Humboldt,  are  known  and  esteemed  wherever 
chemical  science  is  studied.  Of  distinguished 
writers  on  Medicine,  Germany  has  been,  though 
not  equally,  yet  very  honourably  prolific  during 
the  period  under  review.  The  claims  or  Stahl, 
Hoffman,  Van  Swieten,  Heister,  Storck, 
Vogel,  and  Murray,  to  high  honours,  are  gene- 
rally acknowledged.  And  besides  these,  De 
Haen,  Meckel,  Weitbrecht,  Sagar,  Hufe- 
land,  Reil,  Roschlaub,  Reich,  and  many  others, 
have  contributed  to  raise  the  medical  character  of 
their  country. 

But  it  is  chiefly  with  respect  to  progress  in 
litefalurey  strictly  so  called,  that  the  eighteenth 
centurv  gave  rise  to  such  remarkable  improve- 
ments in  Germany.  In  the  Belles  Lettres,  and  in 
works  of  taste,  generally,  that  extensive  empire 
furnished  nothing  worthy  of  notice  anterior  to  the 
age  under  consideration.  But  within  this  period, 
no  other  part  of  the  literary  world  has  been,  on 
the  whole,  so  abundantly  productive  of  works  of 
this  nature. 

It  was  observed  in  a  former  chapter,  that  no 
Historical  work,  deserving  of  commendation  for  its 
taste  or  elegance,  had  appeared  in  Germany  prior 
to  the  period  under  review.  Within  the  latter 
half  of  this  period,  the  works  of  Haberlin,  Ge- 
bauer,  Schmidt,  Muller,  Heinrich,  Beck, 
Meusel,  Gatterer,  Galletti,  Ebeling,  and 
Schiller,  afford  very  honourable  monuments  of 
German  talents.  Of  these  it  is  believed  the  man- 
ner of  Schiller  is  considered  as  the  most  easy,  spi- 
rited and  elegant.  But  though  the  historians  of 
that  country  have  made  great  progress,  within  a 
few  years  past,  in  cultivating  this  species  of  com- 
position, it  is  believed  that  none  of  them  have  yet 
reached  the  high  grade  of  historical  excellence  for 

VOL.  II.  %.t 


S£2  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

which  Robertson,   Hume,   and  Gibbon,  are  so 
generall)r  celebrated. 

The  Germans  exceed  all  the  rest  of  the  world 
in  the  number  and  excellence  of  their  Statistical 
histories.  The  first  work  published  under  this 
denomination,  and  in  a  scientific  form,  was  about 
the  middle  of  the  century,  by  Professor  Achen- 
wall,  of  Gottingen,  who  is  considered  as  the  fa- 
ther of  Statistics.  Since  that  time  many  others 
have  made  publications  of  a  similar  nature,  but 
of  superior  excellence.      Among  these  Walch, 

&EINHARD,     BAUMAN,    ToZE,     ReMER,     MeUSEL, 

and  Sprengel,  are  entitled  to  particular  notice. 

But  there  is  no  species  of  composition  with  re- 
spect to  which  a  greater  improvement  has  been 
made  in  Germany,  during  the  last  age,  than  in 
that  of  Fictitious  History.  The  only  Romances 
or  Novels  which  had  appeared  in  that  country,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  century,  were  wretched  imi- 
tations, wmich  attract  attention  at  present  only  as 
monuments  of  bad  taste.  About  the  year  1746, 
Gellert  made  the  first  attempt  to  introduce  a  dif- 
ferent and  more  correct  model  of  fictitious  history. 
The  appearance  of  his  Schwedische  Grqfin,  pub- 
lished in  that  year,  forms  a  new  era  in  this  depart- 
ment of  German  literature.  The  novels  published 
in  Germany,  from  1746  to  1754,  were,  for  the 
most  part,  translations  from  the  English  and  French 
languages.  In  1754  Gesner's  pastoral  romance, 
entitled  Daph?iis,  appeared;  excited  much  atten- 
tion, and  formed  a  second  epocha  in  the  progress  of 
this  kind  of  composition.  A  few  years  afterwards 
the  Teutchen  Grandison  of  Musaus,  and  the  Aga- 
than  of  Wieland,  gave  another,  and  a  still  more 
correct  turn  to  the  German  taste  in  novel  writing. 
Besides  these,  the  various  works  of  Goethe,  Schil- 
ler, Nicholai,  Klinger,  Herder,  Richter,  and 
many  others,  deserve  to  be  enumerated  among  the 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  325 

most  celebrated  fictions  of  that  country/     In  no 
part  of  Europe,  it  may  be  safely  affirmed,  are  so 
many  novels  continually  produced  as  in  Germany. 
Several  hundreds  annually  issue  from   the  press, 
and  are  circulated  with  growing  zeal  in  every  part 
of  the  empire.     It  must  be  granted,  however,  that 
some  of  the   most   popular  German  novels  are 
highly  mischievous  in  their  moral  tendency;  and 
that  no  small  number  of  their  mercenary  writers 
are  constantly  engaged  in  diffusing,  through  the 
medium  of  fictitious  history,  the  most  corrupt  and 
poisonous  principles,  both  in  religion  and  morals. 
No  less  remarkable  has  been  the  progress  of  the 
German  literati  in  Poetry,  within  the  last  Mty 
years.     The  history  of  literature  in  that  country 
presents  us  with  no  specimens  of  poetry  to  which 
any  high  degree  of  excellence  can  be  ascribed, 
before   those  of  Hagedorn  and  Haller,   who 
were  both  born  in  1708,  and  who  are  justly  con- 
sidered as  the  founders   of  the  modern  poetical 
school  in  Germany.     Between  1740  and  1750,  an 
association  was  formed  by  a  set  of  young  poets, 
possessed  of  eminent  talents;  many  of  whose  com- 
positions were  published  in  the  Belastigiingen  des 
Vertandes  und  Witzes,  and  in  the  Neuen  Beytrd- 
gen  Znm  Vergnugen  des  Verstandes  and  Witzes. 
The  most  eminent  members  of  this  society  were 
Cramer,  Gellert,  Gleim,  Klopstock  and  Rab- 
ner.     Among  these,  the  works  of  Gellert  and 
Klopstock  had  the  most  extensive  and  the  most 
happy  influence  on  the  poetic  taste  of  their  coun- 
trymen.    The  Messiah  of  the  latter/  introduced 
a  great  and  most  useful  reform  both  in  the  diction 

x  The  author  is  too  little  acquainted  with  the  works  of  these  and  other 
German  novelists,  to  say  any  thing  about  the  comparative  moral  tendency 
of  their  works.  He  only  means  to  speak  of  them  as  celebrated  in  a  lite- 
rary view. 

y  Klopstock  published  the  first  Canto  of  his  Mssjiab  in  1 748;  but  it 
wag  not  completed  till  the  year  T773. 


324  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

and  versification  of  German  poetry.  So' that  the 
period  of  their  association  may  be  considered  as 
forming  a  grand  epocha  in  the  history  of  this  de- 
partment of  German  literature. 

Besides  the  poets  already  mentioned,  a  number 
of  others  have  been  long  celebrated  throughout 
Europe.    Among  these  are  Gesner  and  Wifland, 
distinguished  in  epic  poetry;  Kastner,  Uz,  and 
Dcjsch,  in  didactic  poetry;    Kleist,    Voss,   and 
Goethe,  in  descriptive  poetry;  Schlegel,  Herder, 
AYeisse,  and  Ramler,  in  lyric;  and  Canitz  and 
Stolberg,  in  satirical  poetry:  Gesner  and  Voss,  in 
pastoral;  and  Lichtwehr,  Lessing,  and  others,  in 
fable.  Nor  have  the  dramatic  poets  of  Germany,  in 
the  last  age,  been  inferior  in  genius  and  taste  to 
those  of  any  other  country.     Cruger,  Schrceder, 
Iffland,  Grossman,  Lessing,  Engel,  Goethe, 
and  Kotzebue,  in  comedy;  and  Weisse,  Lessing, 
Leisewitz,Klopstock,Schiller,  Goethe,  Babo, 
and  others,  in  tragedy,  are  well  known  to  have 
raised  the  German  drama  to  a  very  high  degree 
of  reputation,  if  not  for  moral  purity,  at  least  for 
spirit,  force,  and  natural  delineation  of  characters. 
Germany  has   also  abounded,  within  the  last 
twenty  years,  beyond   any  country  on  earth,  in 
miscellaneous  publications  on  philology,  criticism, 
education,  and  every  branch  of  polite  literature.  It 
ought,  further,  to  be  mentioned,  to  the  honour  of 
Germany,  that  although  classic  literature  has  much 
declined  in  that  country,  especially  since  the  prac- 
tice of  delivering  lectures  in  Latin,  and  speaking 
that  language,  in  many  of  her  seminaries  of  learn- 
ing,  has   been   discontinued ;    yet    this   kind    of 
knowledge  has  declined,  probably,  less  in   Ger- 
many than  in  any  other  part  of  the  literary  world ; 
and  the  literati  of  that  empire  may  be  considered 
as,  on  the  whole,  the  best  classic  scholars  that 
now  adorn  the  republic  of  letters.     The  names  of 


Nations  lately  become  Literary,  C25 

Kuster,  Reiske,  Ernestt,  IIeyne,  Ruhnken, 
Matthjei,  Schneider,  Voss,  Heeren,  F.  A. 
Wolf,  Bottiger,  and  Heusinger,  with  a  much 
greater  number,  of  nearly  equal  eminence,  would 
do  the  highest  honour  to  any  country,  or  any  age* 
Oriental  literature  eminently  nourished  in  Ger- 
many during  the^eighteenth  century.  It  may  be 
questioned  whether  the  oriental  learning,  and  cri- 
tical skill  of  the  MicHAELrsEs,  Eichhorn,  and 
Reiske,  were  ever  before  equalled.  To  which  il- 
lustrious names,  it  would  be  improper  not  to  add 
those  of  Reinecius,  Ludolf,  Hezel,  Schrceder, 
Wahl,  Hirt,  Tychsen,  Paulus,  and  Hasse,  who 
have  rendered  important  services  to  the  cause  of 
eastern  learning,  and  biblical  criticism. 

No  country  has  ever  produced  so  great  a  num- 
ber of  authors  within  a  similar  period,  as  Germany, 
in  the  eighteenth  century;  and  there  is  no  country 
where  a  taste  for  reading  more  generally  prevails, 
especially  in  the  Protestant  provinces.  Printing 
is  carried  to  an  excess  truly  wonderful.  Almost 
every  man  of  letters  is  an  author.  Books  are  mul- 
tiplied to  an  incredible  extent.  Between  six  and 
seven  thousand  new  works  are  annually  published, 
besides  smaller  controversial  pieces;  for  no  one 
can  become  a  graduate  in  their  universities  un- 
less he  has  published  at  least  one  controversial 
treatise. 

In  Germany  the  authors  by  profession  amount 
to  about  fifteen  thousand !  It  is  true,  the  greater 
part  of  these  are  chiefly  occupied  in  translating 
from  other  languages,  especially  the  French  and 
English .  But  their  translations  are  generally  accom- 
panied with  large  bodies  of  learned  notes,  which,  if 
well  executed,  require  all  the  judgment  and  labour 
of  original  composition.  It  is  further  to  be  observed, 
that,  of  their  prodigious  number  of  books,  Novels 
m,ake  a  considerable  part.     But  they  also  make  a 


326  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

large  annual  emission  of  important  works  on  the 
most  interesting  subjects  in  literature  and  science. 
The  book-trade  of  England  and  France  is  almost 
entirely  confined  to  their  capitals,  while  the  other 
great  towns  have  few  booksellers;  and  even  the 
greater  part  of  these  only  act  as  factors  or  agents 
to  those  who  reside  in  the  grand  centre  of  business. 
But    the    German  empire   has   no   capital   city, 
which,  like  London  or  Paris,  forms  a  kind  of  lite- 
rary vortex,  that  absorbs  the  whole  produce  of  the 
country,  and  out  of  which  few  books  are  to  be 
found.  ■  For  this  reason  literature  is  more  generally 
diffused  in  Germany.     The  residence  of  many  a 
petty  prince  is  more  fertile  in  literary  productions, 
than  some    large    cities   in    England   or  France. 
Hence  the  book-trade  is  more  equally  distributed 
through  the  country;  and  small  towns,  otherwise 
of  little  importance,  are  furnished  with  respectable 
and  independent  booksellers,  each  of  whom,  per- 
haps, will  carry  to  the  Leipsic  and  Frankfort  Fairs, 
a  dozen  new  works  published  by  him,  to  be  distri- 
buted not  only  in  his  own  immediate  neighbour- 
hood, but  also  in  every  province  of  the  empire. 

The  mode  of  disposing  of  books  by  resorting  to 
Fairs  for  the  purpose,  is  peculiar  to  Germany,  and 
has  been  established  in  that  country  for  many 
years.  To  these  great  literary  marts  the  book- 
vsellers  flock  in  crowds  from  every  part  of  the  coun- 
try, with  bales  of  books,  and  with  complete  cata- 
logues of  the  works  which  they  have  to  sell.  Here 
an  amount  of  sales,  and  especially  of  barter,  is  ef- 
fected, which  has  no  parallel  in  the  world.  This 
plan  is  attended  with  many  advantages.  Book- 
sellers, by  having  so  extensive  and  ready  a  sale,  are 
enabled  to  strike  off  much  larger  impressions  of 
good  works,  and  to  afford  them  at  a  lower  price. 
He  who  wishes  to  procure  a  book  in  that  country, 
instead  of  being  condemned  to  a  long  and  tedious 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  527 

search  for  what  is  only  sold  by  one  bookseller,  has 
every  publication  of  value  brought  to  his  door  with 
the  greatest  certainty  and  expedition.  And  the 
frequent  return  of  these  extensive  scenes  of  sale 
and  exchange,  has  a  tendency  to  keep  up  the  pub- 
lic attention  to  literary  objects,  and  to  give  a  de- 
gree of  life  and  interest  to  the  commerce  in  books, 
which  we  look  for  in  vain  in  other  countries. 

The  zeal  and  enterprize  of  German  booksel- 
lers are  incredible.  They  frequently  have  agents 
and  correspondents  in  every  literary  part  of  Europe, 
who  send  them,  with  the  utmost  speed,  all  useful 
intelligence,  and  procure  for  them  the  proof-sheets 
of  new  and  important  works  as  they  are  printing. 
Whence  it  often  happens  that  the  originals  and 
the  German  translations  are  offered  for  sale  at  the 
same  time.  To  this  it  may  be  added,  that  the 
ready  and  extensive  sales  of  books  which  the  fairs 
enable  them  to  effect,  give  such  manifest  ad- 
vantages, that  they  can  more  easily  afford,  and 
are  more  cheerfully  disposed  to  pay  a  liberal  price 
for  literary  services,  than  the  same  class  of  men  in 
most  other  countries.  It  is  said  that  between  three 
and  four  hundred  booksellers  regularly  attend  the 
literary  fairs,  and  that  their  number  is  rapidly 
increasing. 

In  Great-Britain  and  Ireland  there  are  seven  Uni- 
versities. In  Germany  there  are  thirty-nine ;z  each 
of  which  may  be  considered  as  a  grand  focus  from 
which  the  rays  of  light  are  thrown  over  the  whole 
adjacent  country,  thus  illuminating  the  empire, 
and  bringing  the  means  of  knowledge  to  almost 
every  door. 

Within  a  few  years  past  a  taste  for  the  acquisi- 
tion of  living  languages  has  remarkably  prevailed 
in  Germany.     Perhaps  the  inhabitants  of  no  coun- 

z  Six  of  these  Universities  were  founded  during  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, viz,  those  of  Gottingin,  Erfongen,  Fu/da,  Bonn,  Butzn-w,  and  Siutgard, 


328  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

try  are  so  much  disposed  as  those  of  the  German: 
empire  to  learn  the  languages  of  other  nations.  Be- 
sides the  English  and  French,  which  have  a  very 
general  currency,  being  read  and  spoken  by  a  very 
large  portion  of  their  literary  men,  the  Italian,' 
Spanish,  and  Swedish  are  taught  in  many  of  their 
seminaries  of  learning.  The  great  increase  of 
this  taste  is  one  of  the  circumstances  which  pre- 
eminently distinguish  German  literature  in  the 
eighteenth  century. 

The  interests  of  letters  and  science  have  seldom 
received  very  extensive  or  permanent  governmental 
aid  in  Germany.  The  constitution  of  the  empire 
prevents  any  material  aid  of  this  kind  from  being 
rendered,  especially  on  a  large  scale.  A  few  of 
the  subordinate  princes  have  distinguished  theirs 
selves  by  their  efforts  for  the  advancement  of  know- 
ledge; and  though  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  was 
no  friend  to  the  German  language/  yet  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne  may  be  considered  as  a  favour- 
able era  to  German  literature;  because,  by  collect- 
ing so  many  foreigners,  and  especially  Frenchmen, 
at  his  court,  he  excited  a  spirit  of  emulation  among 
his  native  subjects;  introduced  much  of  the  litera- 
ture and  science  of  other  countries  into  his  domi- 
nions ;  and  thus  indirectly  promoted  the  general 
interests  of  knowledge  in  Germany. 

Public  Libraries  were  greatly  enlarged  and  mul- 
tiplied in  Germany  in  the  course  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  To  this  circumstance,  and  also  to  the 
great  multiplication  of  literary  and  scientific  Socie- 
ties, may  be  ascribed  no  small  share  of  that  asto- 
nishing progress  in  literature  and  science  by  which 
every  part  of  the  country,  and  especially  the  nor- 

a  Frederick  II.  among  his  numerous  freaks  and  errors,  was  a  great 
enemy  to  the  German  language.  He  ordered  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Berlin  to  be  published  in  French  ;  by  which,  as  many  supposed,  he 
meant  to  cast  undeserved  reproach  on  his  native  tongue,  and  to  discourage 
the  stady  and  cultivation  of  it,  though  it  had  then  become  so  fashionable* 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  529 

thern  provinces,  have  for  some  time  been,  and  are 
evenj  day  becoming  more  distinguished. 

In  short,  during  the  eighteenth  century  Ger- 
many has  risen  from  pedantry  and  dulness  to  a 
high  character,  for  genius  and  refined  accomplish- 
ments in  the  literary  world.  Instead  of  present- 
ing few  and  comparatively  uninteresting  publica- 
tions, as  was  the  case  an  hundred  years  ago,  she 
has  become  by  far  the  most  prolific  nation  on 
earth  in  every  species  of  literary  production.  She 
gives  birth  annually  to  double  the  number  of  pub- 
lications that  appear  in  France,  and  to  nearly 
treble  the  number  that  are  issued  in  Great-Britain 
and  Ireland.6  Instead  of  being  despised  as  she 
was  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  for  furnish- 
ing scarcely  any  other  than  hewers  of  wood  and 
drawers  of  water  to  the  republic  of  letters^  she 
has  produced,  within  the  last  fifty  years,  histo- 
rians, poets  and  dramatists,  whose  writings  evince 
that  judgment,  acuteness,  imagination,  elegant 
taste,  and  every  qualification  for  fine  writing, 
abound  among  her  people.  In  fact,  she  has  in 
several  respects  pushed  her  literary  progress  to  a 
degree  hitherto  attained  by  no  other  nation,  and 
affords  a  striking  example  of  the  influence  of  lite- 
rature on  national  character. 

But,  while  the  progress  of  Germany  in  liberal 
knowledge,  the  industry  of  her  authors,  the  enter- 

h  The  whole  population  of  Germany  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  thirty 
millions.  In  the  Austrian  dominions  the  class  of  peasants  are  mostly  serfs, 
or  predial  slaves,  of  which  it  is  probable  few  are  able  to  read.  In  the 
other  provinces,  especially  Suabia,  Westphalia,  and  the  Upper  Rhine,  the 
number  must  be  very  great  of  those  who,  if  they  have  been  taught  to  read 
at  all,  never  devote  any  part  of  their  attention  to  books.  Not  more  than 
ten  millions  of  the  thirty  are  of  the  reading  age ;  and  it  is  a  very  liberal 
calculation  to  suppose  that,  of  these  ten  millions,  not  more  than  one-tentlr 
are  in  the  habit  of  purchasing  and  perusing  books.  Hence,  allowing  the 
number  of  authors  by  profession  to  be  fifteen  thousand,  which  is  said  by 
some  to  be  much  below  the  real  number,  it  appears  that,  for  every  sixty- 
six  readers,  there  is  one  who  lives  by  the  trade  of  authorship.  See  New- 
York  Month.  Mag.  vol.  ii.  p.  9. 

VOL.    IT.  2U" 


330  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

prize  of  her  booksellers,  and  the  growth  of  taste 
among  her  literati,  deserve  much  praise,  it  may  be 
questioned  whether  the  friend  of  sound  and  useful 
learning  can  contemplate  her  literary  aspect  wTith 
unmingled  pleasure.  Is  it  not  to  be  feared  that 
the  business  of  book-making  is  carried  in  that 
country  to  excess?  Is  it  useful  to  fill  a  country 
with  a  countless  number  of  hastily  composed, 
and  of  course  superficial  books,  on  the  most  com- 
mon subjects;  thus  perplexing  and  overwhelm- 
ing the  student,  and  imposing  an  unnecessary 
tax  on  the  friends  to  literature?  Above  all,  are  not 
the  moral  and  theological  principles  contained  in 
too  many  of  these  works,  and  the  practical  ten- 
dency of  a  still  larger  number,  such  as  must  £11 
the  virtuous  mind  with  apprehension?  There  is 
such  a  thing  as  an  injurious  multiplication  of  books, 
even  when  they  are  all  individually  harmless;  but 
where  a  considerable  portion  of  them  bear  a  cor- 
rupt character,  every  increase  of  their  number  will 
give  the  friend  of  human  happiness  a  mixture  of 
pain.  There  is  no  country  now  on  earth  (unless, 
perhaps,  we  must  except  France)  in  which  lite- 
rary enterprize  is  made  the  medium  for  convey- 
ing so  much  moral  and  theological  poison  as  in 
Germany. 

UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

The  annals  of  American  literature  are  short  and 
simple.  The  history  of  poverty  is  usually  neither 
very  various,  nor  very  interesting.  Those  who  arc 
accustomed  to  contemplate  only  the  ancient  and 
extensive  literary  establishments  of  Europe,  and 
who  measure  every  object  by  European  standards, 
must  look  upon  all  that  the  Western  hemisphere 
has  hitherto  presented,  especially  until  within  a 
few  years  past,  as  trivial  and  unworthy  of  regard. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  531 

But  those  who  recollect  the  origin  and  progress  of 
the  settlements  which  now  form  the  United  States, 
and  who  make  an  impartial  estimate  of  what  may 
be  justly  expected  from  a  people  situated  as  their 
inhabitants  have  been  and  are,  will  entertain  a  more 
respectful  opinion  of  the  small  portion  of  literature 
which  our  country  contains/ 

The  original  settlers  of  the  American  States 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  viz.  1.  Emi- 
grants from  England,  who  fled  from  persecu- 
tion, and  came  to  enjoy  liberty  of  conscience : 
Of  this  class  were  the  first  settlers  in  New- 
England.  2.  Emigrants  from  the  same  coun- 
try, who  were  prompted  chiefly  by  the  hope  of 
temporal  emolument :  Of  this  description  were 
the  first  settlers  in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  3. 
Emigrants  from  Sweden  and  Holland,  who  planted 
themselves  in  New- York,  and  certain  parts  of  New- 
Jersey  and  Pennsylvania.  The  English  colony 
established  some  years  afterwards  in  Pennsylvania 
by  the  illustrious  William  Penn,  as  well  as  that  in 
Maryland,  by  Lord  Baltimore,  may  be  considered 
as  bearing  the  mixed  character  of  settlements 
prompted  both  by  religious  and  worldly  motives. 

It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  colonists 
of  New-England  would  be  most  early  and  zealous 
in  their  attention  to  literature.     Their  character, 

t  The  Author  regrets  that  his  account  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  Ame- 
rican literature  is  so  much  less  full  and  satisfactory  than  he  once  hoped 
to  make  it.  With  all  his  partiality  for  his  native  country,  he  is  con- 
vinced that  its  literary  history,  even  if  completely  drawn  out.  would  not 
make  a  very  honourable  figure.  But  of  the  few  learned  men,  and  literary 
events  of  which  we  have  to  boast,  it  is  mortifying  that  we  know  so  little. 
The  very  names  of  some  who,  a  century  ago,  were  the  most  conspicuous 
benefactors  to  the  interests  of  liberal  knowledge  in  our  country,  are  now 
almost  forgotten  ;  and  with  respect  to  the  details  of  their  acquirements  and 
services,  nothing  can  be  learned.  An  attempt  is  made  in  the  following 
pages,  to  collect  a  few  of  the  names  and  facts  which  appeared  worthy  of 
notice  There  is  no  doubt  that  more  will  occur  to  different  readers  equal- 
ly worthy  of  being  mentioned.  The  author  can  only  say,  that  he  has  en- 
deavoured, as  impartially  as  he  was  able,  to  exhibit  the  small  portion  of  in- 
formation which  came  within  his  reach. 


532  Nations  lately  become  Literary, 

both  for  learning  and  piety,  and  the  circum- 
stances attending  their  establishment,  were  a  suf- 
ficient pledge  of  their  disposition  to  promote  the 
interests  of  knowledge,  which  they  well  knew 
to  be  one  of  the  most  important  pillars  of  the 
church  as  well  as  of  the  state.  Accordingly,  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  literature  of  the  American  colonies  was  in  a 
great  measure  confined  to  New-England.  There 
the  first  College  in  America  was  instituted  ^  there 
the  first  printing  press  was  established  ;e  and  those 
who  are  acquainted  with  the  characters  of  Hooker, 
Davenport,  Stone,  Warham/  Cotton,  Dun- 
ster,  Eliot,  the  Mathers,  and  other  distin- 
guished clergymen;  and  of  Winthrop,  Haynes, 
Eaton,  Hopkins,  Wyllys,  and  Wolcot,  eminent- 
civilians  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  need 
not  be  informed  that  the  number  of  learned  men, 
at  that  period  in  New-England,  was  by  no  means 
small. 

The  kind  of  learning  most  in  vogue  among 
such  of  the  clergy  and  laity  of  that  country  as  de- 
voted themselves  to  study,  during  the  seventeenth 
century,  was  precisely  that  kind  which  was  most 


d  Harvard  College  was  instituted  in  1638,  a  few  years  after  the  first  set- 
tlement of  the  colony.  In  the  Additional  Notes  to  this  volume,  the  reader 
will  find  as  particular  an  account  of  all  the  colleges  in  the  United  States, 
as  the  author  could  collect.  He  therefore  forbears  to  enter  into  further 
details  in  this  place. 

e  The  first  printing  press  established  in  North-America  was  by  Mr.  Sa- 
muel Green,  at  Cambridge,  in  Massachusetts,  in  the  year  1638.  The  first 
work  printed  was  the  Freeman's  Oath  ;  the  next  an  Almanack,  made  for 
New-England,  by  Mr.  Pierce,  a  mariner;  and  then  the  Psalms  of  David, 
newly  turned  into  Metre,  &c.  There  was  printing  work  done  in  South- 
America  earlier  than  this.  Professor  Barton,  of  Philadelphia,  whose 
zeal  and  talents  in  exploring  American  antiquities  do  him  the  highest 
honour,  lately  showed  the  author  a  Vocabulary  of  one  of  the  principal 
Indian  languages  of  South- America,  printed  in  Mexico,  not  long  after  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

/  The  Rev.  John  Warham,  who  died  at  Windsor,  in  Connecticut,  in 
1670,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  minister  in  New-England  who  used 
Nates  in  preaching. 


Nations  lately  become  Lltera?y.  333 

fashionable  in  their  native  country  when  they  left 
it.*  Accordingly  they  were  generally  well,  and 
some  of  them  profoundly,  read  in  the  Latin, 
Greek,  and  Hebrew  languages,  in  theology,  an- 
cient history,  metaphysics,  and  some  parts  of 
mathematical  and  astronomical  science.  There  is 
good  reason  to  believe  that  the  clergy  and  other 
scholars  of  New- England,  for  near  an  hundred 
years  after  their  first  settlement,  that  is,  till  after 
the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
were  more  eminent  for  classical  and  theological 
erudition  than  men  of  the  same  profession  at 
this  day/  They  were,  in  particular,  much  bet- 
ter acquainted  with  the  Latin  and  Greek  writers 
than  their  descendants  can  now  boast  of  being; 
and  many  of  them  were  masters  of  the  Hebrew 
language,  which  at  present  is  almost  entirely 
neglected.' 

Besides  the  establishment  of  a  college  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, the  inhabitants  of  that  colony  directed 
early  and  particular  attention  to  the  erection  of  sub- 
ordinate schools  in  every  part  of  the  country.  In 
1641  the  following  law  was  enacted.  "  If  any  do 
not  teach  their  children  and  apprentices  so  much 


g  The  University  of  Cambridge,  in  Massachusetts,  was  formed,  as  far 
as  circumstances  would  admit,  on  the  same  plan  with  the  Universities  in 
England,  and  the  same  course  of  study  was,  in  substance,  pursued.  The 
study  of  biblical  literature  and  theological  science  was  encouraged  by  the 
peculiar  spirit  of  the  times,  and  of  the  emigrants.  And  the  direction  once 
given  was  continued  by  the  force  of  example  and  habit  long  afterwards. 

h  This  appears  not  only  from  the  Magnolia  Americana,  of  the  cele- 
brated Cotton  Mather,  but  also  from  the  few  publications  made  by 
the  clergy  and  others  of  that  day ;  from  an  inspection  of  the  books  found 
in  their  libraries,  and  from  the  quality  of  early  donations  in  books  made 
to  Harvard  and  Yale  Colleges. 

i  Many  of  the  distinguished  divines  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut, 
in  the  seventeenth  and  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centuries,  were  cele- 
brated for  their  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  language.  It  is  said  that  the 
Rev.  John  Daven  port,  the  second  clergyman  of  that  name,  and  who  died 
minister  of  the  church  at  Stamford,  in  Connecticut,  about  the  year  1731, 
carried  into  his  pulpit  a  Hebrew  Bible  only,  and  made  use  of  no  other. 


334  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

learning  as  may  enable  them  to  read  perfectly  the 
English  language,  to  forfeit  twenty  shillings;  and 
the  selectmen  of  every  town  are  required  to  know 
the  state  of  the  families,  &c."  Not  long  afterwards 
a  law  was  made,  that  when  any  town  increased  to 
the  number  of  one  hundred  families,  they  should  set 
up  a  grammar  school,  the  master  thereof  being 
able  to  instruct  youth  so  far  as  that  they  may  be 
fitted  for  the  University,  under  certain  penalties. 
To  these  schools,  after  a  few  years,  academies  were 
added;  thus  forming  a  system  of  general  educa- 
tion, which  has  been  from  time  to  time  improved, 
and  which  in  the  eighteenth  century  became  one 
of  the  distinguished  honours  of  New-England. 

It  was  not  till  towards  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  that  a  seminary  of  respectable  cha- 
racter, for  general  instruction  in  literature  and 
science,  was  established  in  Virginia.  The  origi- 
nal settlers  of  that  colony  were,  in  several  respects, 
of  a  very  different  description  from  their  country- 
men who  settled  in  New-England.  But  a  small 
portion  of  them  could  boast  of  any  considerable 
requirements  or  taste  in  literature.  Actuated 
chiefly  by  the  love  of  gain  in  coming  to  a  rude 
and  uncultivated  country,  they  directed  their  prin- 
cipal attention  to  this  object,  and  neglected  most 
other  concerns.  Besides,  not  being  so  much  un- 
der the  influence  of  religious  principles  as  their 
eastern  brethren/  nor  feeling  in  so  high  a  degree 
the  necessity  of  literary  institutions  for  the  pro- 
motion of  ecclesiastical  as  well  as  civil  prosperity, 
they  might  naturally  have  been  expected  to  be 
more  indifferent  about  their  establishment.     And 


j  The  author  does  not  mean  to  intimate  that  the  first  settlers  in  Virgi- 
nia were  destitute  of  Religion;  hut  merely,  (what  he  takes  for  granted 
every  one  will  readily  admit,)  that  Religion  seems  to  have  been  a  less  pro- 
minent object,  and  to  have  entered  less  into  their  motives  and  plans  in 
forming  the  settlement,  than  in  New-England. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  335 

to  crown  all,  being  formed  of  members  who, 
though  chiefly  from  one  country,  were  less  equal 
in  station,  less  homogeneous  in  character,  and  less 
united  by  common  sufferings,  it  was  not  to  be 
supposed  that  they  would  act  with  the  same  har- 
mony and  zeal,  in  any  pursuit  which  had  public 
good  for  its  object. 

Hence,  during  a  great  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  the  southern  colonists  paid  but  little  at- 
tention to  literary  institutions.  Such  as  wished 
to  give  their  sons  a  liberal  education,  and  could 
afford  the  expense,  sent  them  to  Europe  for  this 
purpose,  and  generally  to  some  of  the  universities 
of  Great-Britain.  This  practice,  indeed,  was  con- 
tinued by  many  for  a  long  time  afterwards;  and 
accordingly  it  happened  that,  until  near  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth  century,  by  far  the  greater 
proportion  of  the  young  men  of  the  Southern 
States  who  were  liberally  educated,  had  received 
their  education  at  European  seminaries.  Those 
who  could  not  afford  to  adopt  this  plan  were 
obliged  to  content  themselves  either  with  such 
private  tuition  as  they  could  command,  or  with 
the  miserable  system  of  instruction  pursued  in  the 
few  small  and  ill-conducted  schools  which  had 
been  formed. 

Such  was  the  low  state  of  literature  in  Virginia 
when  the  Rev.  James  Blair,  who  went  to  that 
colony  as  a  missionary  about  the  year  1685,  observ- 
ing the  great  want  of  seminaries  for  the  religious 
and  moral,  as  well  as  literary  instruction  of  the 
youth ;  and  perceiving  among  other  evils  the  obsta- 
cles which  this  presented  to  the  success  of  his  mis- 
sionary labours,  formed  the  design  of  erecting  and 
endowing  a  college  at  Williamsburgh.  For  this 
purpose  he  not  only  solicited  benefactions  from 
the  colonists,  but  also  made  a  voyage  to  England 
in  1693,  to  obtain  the  patronage  of  the  govern- 


§ 3 6  Naiidns  lately  become  Literary. 

ment,  and  a  charter  for  the  proposed  institution.4 
King  William  and  Queen  Mary  being  then  on 
the  throne,  the  application  of  Mr.  Blair  was 
favourably  received;  a  patent  was  immediately 
made  out  for  erecting  and  endowing  a  seminary, 
under  the  name  of  "  William  and  Mary  Col* 
lege,"  agreeably  to  his  request/  and  the  plan  soon 
went  into  operation.  He  was  named  in  the  charter 
as  the  first  president,  and  acted  in  that  capacity 
till  the  year  1742.'" 

This  college,  though  liberally  endowed,  has  not 
flourished  so  much  as  its  friends  could  wish.  For 
more  than  seventy  years  after  its  establishment,  it 
had  rarely  more  than  twenty  students  at  any  one 
time.  The  habit  of  sending  young  men  to  Europe 
for  their  education  had  continued  so  long,  that 
many  of  the  more  wealthy  persisted  in  it  after  they 
had  a  college  erected  among  themselves.  Within  a 
few  years  past  the  number  of  students  has  consi- 

k  The  laudable  exertions  of  Mr.  Blair  are  mentioned  with  great  respect 
by  Bishop  Burnet,  in  his  History  of  bis  Oivn  Times.     See  vol   iv.  p.  174. 

/  1  he  object  declared  in  the  charter  was,  "  to  found  and  establish  a  cer- 
tain place  of  universal  study,  or  perpetual  College,  for  Divinity,  Philoso- 
phy, Languages,  and  other  good  Arts  and  Sciences."  But  neither  Theology 
nor  the  Hebrew  language  appear  to  have  been  so  much  studied  here  as  at 
Cambridge  in  Massachusetts. 

m  The  Rev.  James  Blair  was  born  and  educated  in  Scotland,  where 
he  obtained  a  benefice  in  the  Episcopal  church.  On  account  of  the  unset- 
tled state  of  religion  which  then  existed  in  that  kingdom,  he  quitted  his 
preferments  and  went  into  England,  near  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.  The  bishop  of  London,  considering  him  as  well  qualified  for  the  office, 
both  as  to  talents  and  piety,  prevailed  on  him  to  go  to  Virginia  as  a  mis- 
sionary, where  he  was  highly  popular  and  eminently  useful ;  and  in  1689 
obtained  the  appointment  of  ecclesiastical  Commissary  for  the  Province. 
Though  the  charter  was  given  for  "  William  and  Mary  College,"  about  the 
year  1693,  and  though  he  was  named  therein  as  the  first  President,  yet  he 
does  not  appear  to  have  entered  on  the  duties  of  this  office  till  the  year 
1729,  from  which  period  until  1 742,  he  discharged  them  with  faithfulness. 
Mr.  Blair  was  a  learned  and  exemplary  man.  respected  and  useful  in  his 
various  official  stations,  and  died  in  agoodold  age,  in  1743.  He  published 
four  octavo  volumes  of  discourses,  under  the  following  title  :  "  Our 
Saviour'b  Divine  Sermon  on  the  Mount  explained ;  and  the  Practice  of  it 
recommended  in  divers  Sermons  and  Discourses  "  London,  174a.  This 
work  is  spoken  of  with   high    approbation    by  Dr.  Doddridge,  in  hia 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  S37 

derably  increased,  and  the  prospects  of  the  Insti- 
tution are  becoming  much  more  favourable. 

Neither  in  New- York,  New-Jersey,  Pennsylva- 
nia, Delaware,  nor  Maryland,  had  any  thing  taken 
place,  in  favour  of  literature,  worthy  of  notice,  prior 
to  the  eighteenth  century.  The  inhabitants  of  these 
colonies,  struggling  with  the  difficulties  of  new  set- 
tlements, not  always  in  a  state  of  perfect  harmony 
among  themselves,  and,  of  course,  too  frequently 
encumbered  with  other  engagements,  did  little  to 
advance  the  interests  of  knowledge.  A  few  schools 
were  established,  but  they  were  on  a  small  scale, 
were  but  indifferently  conducted,  and  attracted  but 
few  pupils.  The  more  wealthy  class  in  these  middle 
colonies,  like  their  southern  brethren,  were,  at 
this  time,  in  the  habit  of  sending  their  sons  to  Eu- 
rope for  their  education;  a  practice  which,  though 
it  caused  a  small  portion  of  the  youth  in  the  middle 
and  southern  States  to  be  more  thoroughly  edu- 
cated than  was  common  in  New-England,  yet 
rendered  education  a  much  more  rare  attainment 
among  the  former  than  the  latter,  and,  on  the 
whole,  exceedingly  retarded  the  progress  of  litera- 
ture in  the  colonies. 

It  is  to  be  observed,  also,  that  the  advancement 
of  literature  in  the  American  colonies,  during  the 
seventeenth  century,  was  not  only  retarded  by  the 
general  poverty  of  the  colonists,  and  by  the  numerous 
difficulties  with  which  they  had  to  struggle  while 
surrounded  with  tribes  of  savages,  and  an  unculti- 
vated desert;  but  also  by  the  erroneous  opinions  at 
that  time  prevailing  concerning  the  liberty  of  the 
press.  The  business  of  printing  was  laid  under 
very  inconvenient  and  discouraging  restrictions, 
during  a  part  of  this  period,  in  Massachusetts."    In 


n  Tn  1662,  twenty-four  years  after  a  printing  press  had  been  established 
at  Cambridge,  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  appointed  two  person? 
VOL.  II.  »X 


338  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

the  province  of  New- York,  for  a  considerable 
time,  the  introduction  of  a  press  was  entirely  pro- 
hibited. And  it  is  believed  similar  restraints  took 
place  in  some  of  the  other  colonies.  The  influence 
of  such  restrictions  on  the  general  progress  of  li- 
beral information  could  not  be  otherwise  than 
highly  unfavourable. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, an  important  seminaiy  of  learning  rose  in 
Connecticut.  A  number  of  the  clergy,  anxious, 
more  particularly,  that  means  might  be  adopted 
for  supplying  the  churches  with  a  succession  of 
learned  and  able  ministers,  conceived  the  design 
of  erecting  a  College.  This  was  accordingly  soon 
attempted,  and  with  the  most  happy  success.  An 
act  of  incorporation  was  obtained  from  the  General 
Assembly  in  the  year  1701,  and  the  first  com- 
mencement took  place  in  Saybrook  in  1702.°  The 
course  of  instruction  adopted  in  this  College  was, 
in  general,  directed  towards  those  objects  wThich 
were  before  mentioned  as  being  most  in  vogue  in 
New-England.  Its  establishment  is  an  important 
era  in  the  literary  history  of  Connecticut.  From 
this  institution,  as  well  as  from  the  sister  college 
in  Cambridge,  many  sons  have  been  sent,  who 
have  done  honour  to  their  Alma  Mafer,  and  proved 
benefactors  to  the  cause  of  liberal  knowledge. 

as  Supervisors  of  the  press,  and  prohibited  the  publishing  any  books  or  papert 
until  after  they  had  been  examined  and  approved  by  them.  In  1668  the 
Supervisors  having  allowed  the  celebrated  work  of  Thomas  A.  Kempis, 
Be  Imitatione  Christi,  to  be  printed,  the  Court  interposed,  alleging  that 
it  "  had  been  written  by  a  popish  minister,  and  contained  some  things 
less  safe  to  be  diffused  among  the  people." 

o  The  most  of  those  who  graduated  on  this  occasion  in  Yale  College, 
had  previously  taken  their  master's  degree  at  Cambridge,  in  Massachu- 
setts. This  accounts  for  a  commencement  taking  place  so  soon  after  the 
erection  of  the  college,  and  before  students  could  have  been  carried  regu- 
larly through  an  academic  course.  It  must  be  acknowledged,  however, 
that  the  American  colleges  early  began  to  discover  that  fondness  for  deal- 
ing out  their  honours  with  a  liberal  hand,  which  has  since  so  much  in- 
creased, not  only  in  our  own  country,  but  also  throughout  the  literary 
world. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  339 

In  1714,  the  foundation  of  a  Library  was  laid  in 
this  college.  Jeremiah  Dummer,  Esq.  of  Boston, 
then  an  agent  in  London,  presented  to  it  more  than 
eight  hundred  volumes  of  very  valuable  books, 
part  of  which  were  purchased  by  himself,  and  the 
rest  obtained  from  his  friends  in  London.  Among 
the  donors,  on  this  occasion,  appear  the  names  of 
some  of  the  most  conspicuous  literary  and  philoso- 
phical characters  then  living  in  Great-Britain/ 
These  books,  together  with  large  additions  soon 
afterwards  made  by  Governor  Yale,7  and  others, 
produced  immediate  and  visible  effects  on  the  state 
of  learning  in  the  colony.  Before  their  arrival 
there  were  scarcely  any  books  in  use,  but  such 
as  had  been  imported  with  the  first  settlers,  and, 
of  course,  little  was  known  concerning  the  most 
important  publications,  discoveries,  and  improve- 
ments, which  had  been  laid  before  the  public 
in  the  course  of  the  preceding  century.  From 
these  books,  the  instructors  and  students  of  Yale 
College  first  learned  the  philosophy  of  Locke  and 
of  Newton,  as  well  as  the  important  improvements, 
which  had  recently  taken  place  in  various  depart- 
ments of  literature. 

It  was  some  years  after  the  establishment  of 
Yale  College  before  the  interests  of  literature  be- 
gan to  assume  a  promising  aspect  in  Pennsylvania. 
William  Penn,  being  himself  a  learned  man,  was 
a  friend  to  the  progress  of  knowledge.  We  there- 
fore find,  that,  under  his  auspices,  there  was  esta- 


p  Among  the  names  of  the  contributors  to  this  collection  of  books  for 
Yale  College,  we  find  those  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Sir  Richard 
Blackmore,  Sir  Richard  Steele,  Dr.  Burnet,  Dr.  Woodward, 
Dr.  Halley,  Dr.  Bentley,  Dr.  Kennet,  Dr.  Calamy,  Dr.  Ed- 
wards, the  Rev.  Mr.  Henry,  and  Mr.  Whiston,  who  severally  pre- 
sented copies  of  their  own  works.  Seethe  account  of  Tale  College  in  the 
Appendix  fc  the  Rev.  Mr.  Holmes's  Life  of  President  Stiles. 

q  Thomas  Yale,  Esq.  who  had  been  Governor  of  Fort  St.  George,  in 
India:  For  his  repeated  acts  of  generosity  to  the  college  the  Trustees 
gave  it  his  name. 


54©  Nations  lately  become  Literary, 

blished,  as  early  as  1689,  a  respectable  seminary 
for  the  instruction  of  youth,  not  only  in  reading 
and  writing,  but  also  in  the  learned  languages, 
and  in  the  sciences.  This  seminary  was  more  par- 
ticularly in  the  hands  of  the  Friends,  and  was,  no 
doubt,  useful  in  forming  many  good  scholars,  and 
in  producing  a  considerable  degree  of  taste  for  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge.  The  celebrated  George 
Keith'  was  the  first  teacher  in  this  academy.  He 
continued  in  the  office,  however,  but  one  year;  and 
was  succeeded  by  Thomas  Makin,  who  has  been 
followed  by  a  number  of  good  instructors  to  the 
present  time.  But  the  circumstance  of  this  institu- 
tion being,  in  a  great  measure,  confined  to  one  deno- 
mination of  Christians,  rendered  it  less  useful  than 
it  might  have  been  on  a  more  extensive  and  liberal 
foundation.  Among  those  who  were  most  active 
in  promoting  the  interests  of  literature  from  1689, 
until  a  few  years  after  the- commencement  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  we  find  the  names  of  Edward 
Shipfen/  Anthony  Morris,  Jonathan  Dick- 
inson, Isaac  No.rris,  Nicholas  Waln,  and 
James  Logan/     The  greater  part  of  these  gen- 

r  George  Keith  was  a  native  of  Aberdeen,  in  Scotland.  In  early  life 
he  belonged  to  the  Episcopal  church  ;  but  afterwards  left  that  communion 
and  became  a  celebrated  preacher  among  the  Friends.  In  1692,  having 
manifested  a  troublesome  and  disorderly  disposition,  he  was  disowned  by 
them,  and  in  a  short  time  returned  to  the  Episcopal  church.  He  was  a 
man  of  learning  and  talents  ;  but  arrogant,  vain,  and  given  to  litigation. 

s  Edward  Shippen  was  early  and  much  distinguished  in  Pennsylvania. 
Ke  came  from  England  to  Massachusetts  to  avoid  persecution;  but  be» 
longing  to  the  society  of  Friends,  he  met  with  no  better  treatment  in 
"New-England  than  in  his  own  country.  He  therefore  removed  to  Penn- 
sylvania soon  after  Mr.  Penn's  arrival,  and  became  conspicuous  and  use- 
ful in  the  new  colony.  He  was  successively  speaker  of  the  HoUse  of 
Assembly,  member  of  the  Governor's  Council,  and  the  first  Mayor  of  the 
city  of  Philadelphia.  Plis  descendants  have  continued  to  be  persons  of  dis- 
tinction to  the  present  day. 

t  James  Logan,  mentioned  in  a  former  chapter  as  a  distinguished 
botanist,  was  born  at  Lurgan,  in  Ireland,  in  the  year  1674.  In  1699  he 
came  to  Pennsylvania,  in  company  with  William  Penn,  under  whose 
patronage  he  was  much  employed  in  public  affairs.  He  held,  in  succession, 
the  several  offices  of  provincial  secretary,  commissioner  of  property,  chiei: 
justice,  and;  for  near  two  years,  discharged  the  duties  of  governor,  aspres;r 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  541 

Uemen  were  among  the  founders  of  the  academy 
above-mentioned,  and  all  of  them  were,  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  afterwards,  its  zealous  and  diligent 
supporters. 

About  the  year  1730  a  spring  was  given  to 
the  progress  of  literature  in  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
adjacent  colonies,  by  the  exertions  of  some  Pres- 
byterian clergymen  and  others,  most  of  whom  had 
a  short  time  before  arrived  from  Europe,  and  who 
embarked  with  a  laudable  zeal  in  the  promotion 
of  knowledge.  The  first  of  these  was  the  Rev. 
William  Tennent,  an  emigrant  from  Ireland, 
who,  about  the  year  last  mentioned,  established 
at  Neshaminy,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Philadel- 
phia, an  Academy,  which  was  more  particularly 
intended  for  the  education  of  ministers  for  the 
Presbyterian  church.'"     This  institution  continued 

dent  of  the  council.  He  died  in  1 75 1,  at  Stenton,  his  country  seat,  nearGer- 
mantown,  where  he  had  long  enjoyed  a  dignified  retirement,  devoted  to 
study,  and  much  employed  in  corresponding  with  learned  nun  in  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Europe.  He  was  well  versed  in  both  ancient  and  modern 
learning;  had  made  considerable  proficiency  in  oriental  literature;  was  a 
master  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  French  and  German  languages,  and  had  a  very 
respectable  degree  of  skill  in  mathematics,  natural  and  moral  philosophy, 
and  natural  history.  His  principal  works  are  the  following  :  1.  Exper'nnenta 
et  Meletemata  de  Plantarum  Generatione,  &c.  printed  at  Leyden  in  1 739, 
and  afterwards  in  London,  by  Dr.  Fothergill,  in  1747.  1.  Canonum 
pro  inveniendis  Refractionum,  turn  simpliciam,  turn  in  lentibus  duplicium  Joels, 
De?nonstrationes  Geometries,  &c.  also  printed  at  Leyden  in  1739;  anc*>  3- 
in  his  old  age  he  translated  Cicero's  treatise  de  Senecttde,  with  explanatory 
notes,  which  was  published  with  a  recommendatory  preface  by  Dr.  Frank- 
lin, in  1744.  Mr.  Logan  had,  with  great  care  and  pains,  collected  a 
Library  of  more  than  three  thousand  volumes,  which,  at  that  time,  was  by 
far  the  largest  in  Pennsylvania,  and  particularly  rich  in  works  in  the  Latin 
and  Greek  languages,  and  in  the  most  curious,  excellent  and  rare  scientific 
publications.  This  valuable  collection  of  books,  usually  called  the  Logamiam 
Library,  was  bequeathed  by  its  possessor  to  the  citizens  of  Philadelphia, 
and  has  been  since  deposited  in  one  of  the  apartments  belonging  to  the 
Library  company  of  that  city.  Puoud's  History  of  Pennsylvania,  vol.  i. 
p.  478,  &C. 

v  Mr.  William  Tennent  had  been  a  clergyman  in  the  established 
church  of  Ireland  before  he  came  to  America.  Soon  after  his  arrival  he 
renounced  his  connection  with  the  Episcopal  church,  and  joined  the  Pres- 
bytery of  Philadelphia.  He  was  much  celebrated  for  his  accurate  nnd 
profound  acquaintance  with  the  Latin  and  Greek  classics,  and  taught  them 
with  great  success  in  his  academy  on  the  Neshaminy,  which  was  called  at 
*hat  time  his  Log   College^  from  the  edifice  in  which  his  instruction  was 


342  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

to  flourish  for  some  time,  and  was  the  means  of 
forming  a  number  of  good  scholars,  and  distin- 
guished professional  characters.  When  it  began 
to  decline,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Roan,  a  learned  and 
able  divine,  also  of  the  Presbyterian  church,  erect- 
ed another  academy  at  Neshaminy,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  former.  Mr.  Roan,  as  well  as  his  prede- 
cessor, is  entitled  to  grateful  remembrance  for  his 
zeal  and  success  in  promoting  useful  knowledge. 

About  this  time  also  Mr.  Tiieophtlus  Grew," 
from  England,  Mr.  Annan,  from  Scotland,  and 
"Mr.  Stevenson,  from  Ireland,  set  up  grammar 
schools  in  Philadelphia,  in  which  the  dead  lan- 
guages were  taught  with  great  skill  and  assiduity, 
Mr.  Grew  was  the  first  person  in  Pennsylvania 
who  undertook  to  teach  the  English  language 
grammatically.  By  the  aid  of  these  teachers  some 
of  the  oldest  and  most  respectable  inhabitants  of 
Pennsylvania,  now  living,  were  initiated  into  the 
elements  of  English  and  classical  knowledge. 

About  the  year  1740  the  Rev.  Dr.  Francis 
Allison  opened  an  academy  for  teaching  the 
Latin  and  Greek  classics  and  the  sciences  at  New- 
London,  in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania.™  Here 
he  began  that  course  of  public  instruction,  and  that 

carried  on  being  built  of  logs.  Mr.  Tennent  had  four  sons,  Gilbert., 
William,  John,  and  Charles,  who  were  all  distinguished  and  useful 
clergymen,  and  whose  praise  has  long  been  in  the  churches. 

u  Theophilus  Grew  was  probably  a  son  or  grandson  of  the  celebrated 
botanist  bearing  the  same  name,  who,  in  1676,  first  suggested  the  sexual 
doctrine  of  vegetables  to  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  The  former  was 
much  distinguished  as  a  mathematician,  and  was  afterwards  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  college  of  Philadelphia. 

iv  The  Rev.  Francis  Allison,  D.  D.  was  born  in  Ireland,  in  the  year 
1705.  He  received  an  excellent  classical  education  at  an  academy  in  the 
north  of  that  kingdom,  under  the  particular  inspection  of  the  bishop  of 
Raphoe,  and  afterwards  completed  his  studies  at  the  university  of  Glasgow. 
He  came  to  America  in  1735,  and  was  the  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian 
church  in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  until  about  the  year  1 753,  when 
he  was  chosen  rector  of  the  academy  in  Philadelphia.  Besides  an  unusually 
accurate  and  profound  acquaintance  wich  the  Latin  and  Greek  classics,  he^ 
was  well  informed  in  moral  philosophy,  history,  and  general  literature.. 
He  died  in  1779,  in  ths  seventy-fourth  year  of  his  age. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  343 

4eal  for  the  diffusion  of  general  knowledge,  which 
ended  only  with  his  life,  and  to  which  Pennsylvania 
owes  much  of  that  taste  for  solid  learning,  and  par- 
ticularly for  classic  literature,  for  which  many  of  her 
eminent  characters  have  been  so  laudably  distin- 
guished. Not  long  afterwards  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Blair  opened  an  academy  at  Fog's  Manor,  also 
in  Chester  county,  on  nearly  the  same  plan  of 
education  with  that  which  was  adopted  in  Dr. 
Allisons  seminary,  but  with  more  particular  at- 
tention to  the  study  of  theology  as  a  science.  Mr. 
Blair  was  a  man  of  respectable  talents  as  well  as 
learning,*  and  was  eminently  serviceable  to  that 
part  of  the  country  as  a  teacher  of  human  know- 
ledge, as  well  as  a  minister  of  the  gospel.  From 
this  "  School  of  the  prophets,"  as  it  was  frequently 
called,  there  issued  forth  many  excellent  pupils, 
who  did  honour  to  their  instructor  both  as  scholars 
and  Christian  ministers/  The  next  institution  of 
this  kind  was  the  academy  opened  a  few  years 
after  Mr.  Blair's,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Fin- 
ley,2  at  West-Notingham,  in  Chester  county^in 
which  a  number  of  young  persons  were  instructed 
in  the  languages  and  sciences,  and  some  in  parti- 
cular trained  up  to  usefulness  and  honour  in  the 
Christian  church.* 

*  The  Rev.  Samuel  Blair  was  a  native  of  Ireland.  He  came  to 
America  very  early  in  life,  and  was  one  of  Mr.  Tennent's  pupils,  in  his 
academy  at  Neshaminy.  He  was  considered  not  only  as  one  of  the  most 
learned  and  able,  but  also  as  one  of  the  most  venerable,  pious,  and  excellent 
men  of  his  day. 

y  Among  the  distinguished  characters  who  received  their  classical  anif 
theological  education  at  this  seminary,  were  the  Rev.  Samuel  Davjes, 
afterwards  president  of  the  college  of  New- Jersey  ;  the  Rev.  Dr.  Rodger*, 
of  New-York;  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Alexander  Cummings,  Jamej  Fin- 
ney, Hugh  Henry,  and  a  number  cf  other  respectable  clergymen. 

z  The  Rev.  Dr.  Fin  lev,  afterwards  president  of  the  college  of  New- 
Jersey,  was  a  native  of  Ireland.  He  came  to  America  in  early  life,  after 
having  received  an  excellent  education  in  his  native  country,  and  a  short 
time  after  his  arrival  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of  New-Brunswick. 
The  eminence  which  he  afterwards  attained  is  well  known. 

a  Some  of  the  facts  and  names  above  stated,  were  received  by  the  au- 
thor from  his  venerable  colleague,  (£e  Rev,  Dr.  RosGKas,  an4  from 
Dr.  Hugh  Williamson, 


344         Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

Before  the  institution  of  these  academies,  that 
is,  anterior  to  the  year  1730,  there  was  very  little 
taste  for  classical  learning  in  the  middle  colonies  of 
America.  It  is  true,  the  number  of  respectable  di- 
vines, physicians  and  lawyers,  was  not  small,  but 
the  greater  part  of  those  who  had  attained  to  any 
eminence  had  received  their  education  in  Europe, 
and  almost  all  the  instructors  in  academies  or 
schools  were  emigrants  from  Great-Britain  or 
Ireland.  But  from  this  period  a  new  era  com- 
menced. Native  Americans  began  to  discover  a 
taste  for  both  ancient  and  modern  literature,  and 
the  interests  of  liberal  knowledge  began  to  assume 
a  more  promising  aspect. 

It  is  generally  known  that  the  clergy,  in  all 
civilized  nations,  are  the  chief  promoters  of  the 
instruction  of  youth.  Accordingly,  it  is  a  remark- 
able fact,  that  in  all  those  parts  of  our  country  in 
which  the  clergy  are  most  numerous,  pious,  and 
exemplary,  literature  is  most  popular ;  and  in  re- 
viewing the  literary  history  of  the  several  American 
States,  we  find  that  useful  knowledge  has  been 
most  early  and  most  generally  encouraged  in  those 
parts  of  the  country  in  which  clergymen  of  good 
character  were  most  early  and  generally  settled. 
This  remark  was  strikingly  confirmed  and  exem- 
plified in  Pennsylvania  and  New-Jersey,  at  the 
period  of  which  we  are  now  speaking.  The  ex- 
ertions made  by  some  of  the  clergy  of  these  colo^ 
nies,  at  this  period,  for  the  promotion  of  literature, 
were  unwearied  and  persevering,  and  deserve  the 
most  grateful  acknowledgments.  The  Svnod  of 
Philadelphia  embarked  in  this  cause  with  great 
zeal.  They  particularly  favoured  the  academies  of 
Dr.  Allison  and  Mr.  Blair,  before  mentioned. 
To  the  former  they  agreed  to  pay  a  certain  sum 
annually,  that  he  might  be  enabled  to  render  his 
seminary  more  extensive  in  its  plan,  and  especially 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  345 

to  educate  for  the  service  of  the  church,  such  pious 
young  men  as  might  not  be  able  themselves  to 
bear  the  expense  of  an  academic  course.6 

But  the  clergy  and  others  of  the  Presbyterian 
church,  soon  rinding  that  the  provision  heretofore 
made  by  them  for  the  encouragement  of  literature 
was  inadequate,  began  to  form  designs  of  more 
extensive  and  permanent  utility.  In  the  year  1746 
a  plan  of  a  college  was  formed  by  a  few  distin- 
guished clergymen  of  this  denomination,  in  the 
States  of  New-York  and  New-Jersey/  aided  by 
some  gentlemen  of  literary  character  and  liberal 
views,  of  the  same  religious  communion/    The 

b  When  Dr.  Allison,  after  a  few  years,  removed  to  Philadelphia,  and 
was  appointed  Vice-Provost  of  the  College  erected  there,  his  Academy  at 
Neiv-London  was  transferred  to  JVew-Ari,  a  pleasant  village  in  the  State 
of  Delaware,  where  it  was  put  under  the  care  of  the  Rev.  Mt.M'Dowell, 
a  respectable  Presbyterian  clergyman,  who  had  received  his  education  at  the 
university  of  Edinburgh.  This  institution  continued  for  a  number  of 
years  under  the  patronage  of  the  Presbyterian  Church;  and  was  the  means 
of  forming  a  number  of  excellent  scholars,  not  only  for  the  gospel  ministry, 
but  also  for  the  other  learned  professions. 

c  Among  these  were,  I.  The  Rev.  Jonathan  Dickinson,  a  native  of. 
Connecticut,  and  an  alumnus  of  Yale  College;  a  man  of  learning,  of  dis- 
tinguished talents,  and  much  celebrated  as  a  preacher.  He  was  for  some 
years  minister  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Elizabeth-Town,  in  New- 
Jersey,  a.  The  Rev.  Aaron  Burr,  also  a  native  of  Connecticut,  and  a 
graduate  of  Yale  College,  who  was  called,  in  I74*»  to  take  charge  of  the 
Presbyterian  church  atNew-Ark,  in  New-Jersey,  and  who  was  so  eminent  as 
an  able  and  learned  divine,  and  an  accomplished  scholar,  that  he  was  after- 
wards unanimously  elected  President  of  the  college  which  he  was  instrumen- 
tal in  founding.  He  was  the  father  of  Aaron  Burr,  Esq.  the  present  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States.  3.  The  Rev.  Ebenezer  Pemserton,  a 
native  of  Massachusetts,  and  a  son  of  Harvard  College,  a  man  of  respecta- 
ble abilities  and  information.  He  was,  at  this  time,  pastor  of  the  Presby- 
terian church  in  the  city  of  New-York,  from  which  he  removed  to  Bos- 
ton, and  died  many  years  afterwards,  minister  of  the  Old  South  church 
in  that  town. 

d  The  most  distinguished  of  the  lay  gentlemen  who  aided  in  the  erec- 
tion of  this  college,  by  their  councils,  property  and  influence,  were  the 
three  following:  1.  William  Smith,  Esquire,  a  native  of  England, 
who  came  to  America  about  the  year  1715,  and  received  a  liberal  educa- 
tion in  Yale  college.  He  was  bred  a  lawyer;  attained  great  eminence 
at  the  bar,  both  for  erudition  and  eloquence,  and  was  afterwards  one 
of  the  Judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  province.  2.  Peter  Van 
Brvch  Livingston,  Esquire,  a  native  of  New- York,  and  descended 
from  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  respectable  families,  who  migrated 
thither  from  Great-Britain.  He  also  received  his  education  at  Yale  Col- 
VOL.   II.  zY 


346  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

charter  was  obtained,  and  the  college  commenced 
its  operation  in  Elizabeth-Town,  New- Jersey,  in 
the  year  above-mentioned,  under  the  Presidency 
of  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Dickinson,  who  was  then 
pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  that  town. 
Mr.  Dickinson  dying  the  next  year,  the  College 
was  removed  to  New-Ark,  in  the  same  Province, 
and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Burr  elected  to  the  office  of 
President;  from  which  place  it  was  finally  removed 
in  1757,  to  Princeton,  which  had  been  agreed 
upon  as  its  permanent  situation/  The  circum- 
stances attending  the  establishment  of  this  College; 
the  zeal  for  the  promotion  of  literature,  which  was 
indicated  by  its  erection,  and  which  it  served  af- 
terwards greatly  to  increase;  and  the  many  distin- 
guished characters  which  it  has  contributed  to 
form,  render  it,  beyond  all  doubt,  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  institutions  in  our  country,  and  one  of 
those  whose  history  and  influence  are  most  worthy 
of  being  traced. 

While  these  measures  for  the  advancement  of 
literature  were  proceeding  thus  favourably,  Ben- 
jamin Franklin^  appeared  in  Pennsylvania,  and 

kge,  and  was  long  distinguished  as  a  judicious,  well  informed,  and  public- 
spirited  man.  3.  William  Peartree  ^ith,  Esquire,  also  a  native  of 
New-York,  a  man  of  considerable  talents  and  reading.  It  is  believed  he 
was  an  alumnus  of  the  same  college  with  the  preceding.  At  the  period  of 
which  we  are  speaking  he  resided  in  New-York,  but  afterwards  removed 
to  New-Jersey,  where,  after  sustaining  a  number  of  public  honours,  he 
died  a  few  years  ago.  Besides  these,  some  other  laymen  might  be  men- 
tioned who  were  animated  with  a  literary  spirit,  and  embarked  with  zeal 
in  the  same  cause ;  but  our  limits  forbid  more  minute  details. 

e  It  ought  not  to  pass  unnoticed,  that  the  middle  colonies  were  mueh 
indebted  for  their  progress  in  literature,  at  this  time,  to  New-England. 
The  first  three  presidents  of  New-Jersey  college  were  born  and  educated 
in  that  country,  as  were  also  a  considerable  number  of  the  other  active  and 
enlightened  promoters  of  learning  then  residing  in  New-York,  New- 
Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania. 

f  Bexjamix  Franklin  was  born  in  Boston,  in  the  year  1705.  He 
first  came  to  Philadelphia  in  the  autumn  of  1723,  in  the  character  cf  a 
journeyman  printer  ;  established  himself  there  in  this  business  on  his  own 
account  in  1729,  and  soon  began  to  print  a  newspaper.  In  1732  he  com- 
menced the  publication  of  Poor  Richard's  Almanack ;  and  from  this  time 
till  about  the  year  1752,  when  he  made  his  grand  discoveries  in  Electricity, 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  347 

began  to  distinguish  himself  by  his  exertions  for 
promoting  useful  knowledge.  The  original  genius 
of  this  celebrated  man;  his  sound  practical  under- 
standing ;  his  scientific  discoveries ;  and  his  zeal 
and  unwearied  assiduity  in  forwarding  every  pur- 
suit which  had  for  its  object  the  progress  of  lite- 
rature, are  wrell  known,  and  have  been  applaud- 
ed not  only  by  his  countrymen,  but  also  by  the 
learned  of  all  nations/  North-America  in  general, 
and  in  particular  Pennsylvania,  owes  a  large 
debt  of  gratitude  to  this  man.  He  had  great  in- 
fluence in  awakening  and  directing  the  attention 
of  those  around  him  to  literature,  science,  and  use- 
ful arts  of  every  kind.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
native  Americans  who  succeeded  in  cultivating  an 
easy,  unaffected  and  polished  style  of  writing/  He 

was  gradually  rising  in  reputation  and  usefulness.  His  political  charac- 
ter and  activity,  besides  being  irrelative  to  the  present  subject,  are  too 
•well  known  to  render  any  attempt  to  detail  them  in  this  place  either, 
necessary  or  proper. 

g  A  late  writer  in  the  Monthly  Magazine  of  London  (see  the  Sup- 
plement to  vol.  xiv),  among  other  severe  remarks  on  the  state  of  American 
literature,  affects  to  speak  with  great  contempt  of  the  character  and  writ- 
ings of  Dr.  Franklin.  An  essay  which  discovers  so  much  ignorance, 
weakness,  and  inconsistency  would  not  be  noticed  in  this  place,  did  it  not 
afford  an  opportunity  of  doing  justice  to  a  man  to  whom  our  country 
ewes  much.  That  the  character  and  opinions  of  Dr.  Franklin  were, 
in  all  respects,  faultless,  is  by  no  means  contended.  This  was  far  from  be- 
ing the  case.  But  that  he  had  an  original  genius,  a  strong  mind,  and  much 
practical  wisdom  ;  thathe  made  many  valuable  contributions  to  science  and 
the  arts  ;  and  that  his  writings  have  been  much  read,  translated  into  vari- 
ous languages,  and  quoted  with  respect  by  the  learned  of  foreign  countries, 
can  be  questioned  by  no  one  who  is  not  as  ignorant  as  he  is  prejudiced. 

h  The  anonymous  writer  above  mentioned,  after  bestowing  a  number  of 
severe  epithets  on  the  American  style  of  writing,  some  of  which  are  not 
altogether  unmerited,  represents  our  writers  as  having  generally  formed 
their  manner  after  that  of  Dr.  Franklin.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  con- 
ceive of  a  remark  more  unfounded,  or  that  discovers  a  more  entire  unac- 
quaintance  with  the  subject  which  he  undertakes  to  discuss.  It  is  generally- 
known  to  well  informed  persons,  that  Franklin,  as  he  tells  us  himself  in 
his  account  of  his  own  life,  took  the  style  of  Mr.  Addison  for  his  model ; 
and  though  he  was  far  from  attaining  a  style  equal  to  that  of  the  illustrious 
British  essayest,  yet  he  certainly  wrote  with  an  ease,  simplicity,  spright- 
liness,  purity,  and  perspicuity,  highly  respectable,  and  very  different  from 
the  affectation,  the  bombast,  and  the  perpetual  use  of  unauthorized  terms 
and  phrases,  which  characterize  too  many  American  writers  in  later  times, 
and  from  which  some  popular  writers  of  Great-Britain  arc  by  no  means 
exempted. 


348  Nations  lately  become  Lifer ary. 

was  the  projector  and  founder  of  some  of  the  most 
useful  literary  institutions  which  our  country  can 
boast ;  and  may  justly  be  considered  as  having  given 
an  impulse  to  the  public  mind,  in  favour  of  liberal 
knowledge,  which  forms  a  distinguished  era  in  the 
history  of  our  country. 

Hitherto  scarcely  any  native  American  had  at- 
tracted attention  among  the  learned  of  Europe,  or 
by  his  writings  or  discoveries  turned  their  eyes  to 
this  new  world.  The  first  persons  who  attained 
this  honour,  in  any  considerable  degree,  were  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Jonathan  Edwards,'  the  celebrated 
theological  and  metaphysical  writer,  and  Dr.  Ben- 
jamin Franklin.  Though  the  genius,  talents, 
and  general  character  of  no  two  persons  could  be 
more  different;  yet  each  in  his  way  gained  high 
and  extensive  celebrity,  and  for  the  first  time  con- 
vinced the  literati  of  foreign  countries,  that  Ame- 
rica had  given  birth  to  philosophers  who  were 
capable  of  instructing  them. 

The  arrival  in  America  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  George 

i  The  Rev.  Jonathan  Edwards  was  born  at  Windsor,  in  Connec- 
ticut, October  5,  1703.  He  received  his  education  at  Yale  college,  where 
he  graduated  bachelor  of  arts  in  1720.  He  early  began  to  preach,  and  the 
Presbyterian  church  of  New-York,  then  in  its  infancy,  had  the  honour  of 
enjoying  his  ministrations  for  eight  months,  in  the  year  1723.  He  after- 
wards became  the  pastor  of  a  congregational  church  in  Northampton,  in 
Massachusetts ;  and  in  1757  was  chosen  president  of  the  college  of  New 
Jersey,  in  which  office  he  continued  till  his  death,  which  took  place  March 
22,  1758,  in  the  fifty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  This  illustrious  man  was  very 
respectably  learned  in  the  Latin,  Greek  and  Hebrew  languages,  and  also 
in  the  mathematics,  and  natural  philosophy ;  but  in  theological,  moral  and 
"metaphysical  science,  he  discovered  an  acuteness,  vigour,  and  comprehen- 
siveness of  mind,  which  decidedly  place  him  in  the  very  first  rank  of 
great  men  belonging  to  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  He  read  Locke's  Es- 
say on  Human  Understanding  at  thirteen  years  of  age,  and  declared,  to  an 
intimate  friend  a  short  time  before  his  death,  that,  at  that  early  age  "  he 
was  as  much  engaged,  and  had  more  pleasure  in  studying  this  work,  than 
the  most  greedy  miser  could  have  in  gathering  up  handfuls  of  silver  or  geld 
from  a  newly  discovered  mine."  The  fruits  of  this  early  initiation  into 
metaphysical  science  were  afterwards  laid  before  the  public  in  his  Inquiry 
into  the  Freedom  of  the  Will,  &c  a  work  which  has  been  pronounced  "  one 
of  the  greatest  efforts  of  the  human  mind,"  which  was  received  with 
high  approbation  in  Europe  ;  and  which  has  been,  ever  since  its  publica- 
tion, quoted  as  a  great  standard  work  on  the  subject  of  which  it  t 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  349 

Berkeley,  then  dean  of  Deny,  afterwards  bishop 
of  Cloyne,  deserves  to  be  noticed  \n  the  literary 
history  of  America,  not  only  as  a  remarkable  event, 
but  also  as  one  which  had  some  influence  on  the 
progress  of  literature,  particularly  in  Rhode-Island 
and  Connecticut.  This  great  man,  in  1729,  nine- 
teen years  after  the  publication  of  the  celebrated 
work  in  which  he  denied  the  existence  of  the 
material  world,  came  to  America  with  a  particu- 
lar view  to  the  establishment  of  an  Episcopal  col- 
lege, to  aid  in  the  missionary  cause/  He  landed 
at  Newport,  in  Rhode-Island,  and  purchased  a 
country  seat  and  farm  in  the  neighbourhood  of  that 
town,  where  he  resided  about  two  years  and  an 
half.  And  though  various  circumstances  discou- 
raged him  from  prosecuting  his  original  design, 
and  induced  him  to  return  to  Europe  without  ef- 
fecting it;  yet  his  visit  was  by  no  means  without 
its  utility.     The  presence  and  conversation  of  a 


j  Dr.  Berkeley  was  bom  in  Ireland  in  the  year  1684,  and  received 
his  education  at  Trinity  college,  Dublin.  About  the  year  1724,  he  was 
made  dean  of  Derry;  and  in  1725,  published  a  plan,  which  he  pur- 
sued with  great  zeal,  of  establishing  a  College  in  one  of  the  Bermudas, 
or  Summer  Islands,  the  principal  objects  of  which  were,  the  obtaining  a 
better  supply  of  missionaries  for  the  colonies,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
American  Indians  to  Christianity.  The  plan  was  favourablv  received  not 
only  by  his  friends,  but  also  by  the  government.  He  obtained  a  charter 
for  the  proposed  college,  in  which  he  was  named  as  the  first  President ;  and 
also  a  parliamentary  grant  of  £.  20,000  sterling  for  its  support.  In  the 
month  of  February,  in  the  year  1729,  he  came  to  America  for  the  purpose 
of  putting  his  plan  into  execution,  and  brought  with  him  his  lady,  whom 
he  had  married  but  a  few  months  before.  Soon  after  his  arrival  he  be- 
came convinced  that  the  plan  of  establishing  the  proposed  College  in 
the  Bermuda  isles  was  by  no  means  an  eligible  one ;  he  therefore  wrote 
to  his  friends  in  England,  requesting  them  to  obtain  an  alteration  in 
the  charter,  fixing  the  institution  on  some  part  of  the  American  con- 
tinent (which  would  probably  have  been  New-York),  and  soliciting  the 
immediate  payment  of  the  sum  which  had  been  granted  for  its  esta- 
blishment. Finding,  however,  after  a  delay  of  two  years  and  an  half, 
that  there  was  no  probability  of  the  money  being  paid,  and  considering 
his  plan  as  impracticable,  he  embarked  at  Boston,  in  September,  1731,  and 
returned  to  England.  In  1733  he  was  promoted  to  the  Bishoprick  of 
Cloyne,  and  in  January,  1753,  he  died  in  the  city  of  Oxford,  universally 
i-espected  and  lamented.  While  he  resided  at  Rhode-Island,  he  composed 
bis  Aleipbrott,  or  Minute  Philosopher. 


350  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

man  so  illustrious  for  talents,  learning,  virtue, 
and  social  aUractions,  could  not  fail  of  giving  a 
spring  to  the  literary  diligence  and  ambition  of 
many  who  enjoyed  his  acquaintance.  He  visited  the 
various  literary  institutions  which  came  within  his 
reach,  and  wrote  and  spoke  in  their  favour,  as  op- 
portunities were  afforded,  and  their  exigencies  re- 
quired. He  exercised  particular  munificence  to 
Yale  College,  to  which  his  attention  was  directed 
by  one  of  the  trustees  of  the  institution  with  whom 
he  was  acquainted,  and  also  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Williams,  then  President  of  the  College,  with 
whom  he  corresponded.  Soon  after  his  return  to 
Europe  he  sent,  as  a  gift  to  this  College,  a  deed 
of  the  farm  which  he  held  in  Rhode-Island,  which 
he  directed  to  be  appropriated  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  three  best  classical  scholars  who  should  re- 
side at  College  at  least  nine  months  in  a  year,  in 
each  of  the  three  years,  between  their  first  and  se- 
cond degrees;*  and  all  surplussages  of  money,  aris- 
ing from  accidental  vacancies,  to  be  distributed  in 
Greek  and  Latin  books,  to  such  under-graduate 
students  as  should  make  the  best  composition,  or 
declamation  in  the  Latin  tongue,  upon  such  a  mo- 
ral theme  as  should  be  given  them.  This  dona- 
tion is  still  held  by  the  College,  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  Deans  Bounty  is  annually  and  faith- 
fully performed,  agreeably  to  the  directions  of  the 
donor.  While  at  Newport,  the  Dean  also  pre- 
sented a  copy  of  his  own  works  to  the  College  Li- 
brary; and  after  his  return  to  Europe,  partly  out  of 
his  own  estate,  but  principally  with  monies  which 

k  The  Dean  directed,  that  on  the  sixth  of  May  annually,  or,  in  case 
that  should  be  Sunday,  on  the  seventh,  the  candidates  for  this  bounty 
should  be  publicly  examined  by  the  President  of  the  College,  and  the  se- 
nior Episcopal  Missionary  within  the  colony  who  should  then  be  present, 
and  in  case  none  should  be  present,  then  by  the  President  only:  And  in 
ca^e  the  President  and  senior  Missionary  should  not  agree  in  deciding  Q}\ 
the  best  scholars,  that  .then  the  case  should  be  decided  by  lot. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  351 

he  procured  for  the  purpose,  by  donation  in  Eng- 
land, he  made  an  additional  present  of  nearly  one 
thousand  volumes  to  the  same  Library.' 

In  1748  a  public  Library  was  established  at 
Newport,  in  Rhode-Island,  by  Abraham  Red- 
wood, Esq.  an  opulent  gentleman,  who  wished 
to  encourage  literature.  It  was  founded  for  the 
use  of  all  denominations  of  christians  indiscrimi- 
nately; a  company  was  afterwards  incorporated  by 
the  legislature,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  and  su- 
perintending it;  and  large  additions  were  made  to 
it  by  donations  from  Europe  and  elsewThere.  This 
Library  afforded  to  the  inhabitants  of  Rhode-Is- 
land means  of  literary  improvement  which  they 
had  never  before  enjoyed  ;  and  no  doubt  contri- 
buted something  to  the  extension  of  a  taste  for 
letters  and  science  in  that  colony. '" 

The  influence  of  Dr.  Fran»lin's  literary  zeal 
and  industry  soon  began  to  display  itself  in  Penn- 
sylvania. In  1742,  an  Association,  which  had 
been  formed  at  his  instance,  and  by  his  unwearied 
exertions  some  time  before,  was  incorporated,  by 
the  name  of  "  The  Library  Company  of  Phila- 
delphia." This  institution  was  greatly  encouraged 
by  the  friends  of  literature  in  America  and  in 
Great-Britain.  Valuable  contributions  were  made 
to  it,  not  only  by  Franklin,  and  his  literary  friends 
and  countrymen,  but  also  by  his  correspondent, 
Mr.  Collinson,  by  Thomas  and  Richard  Penn, 
and  others.  From  that  period  to  the  present  it  has 
been  continually  growing;  and  now,  in  conjunc- 

/  The  attention  and  munificence  of  the  Dean  to  Yale  College,  when 
considered  in  all  its  circumstances,  reflects  much  honour  on  his  disinter- 
estedness and  liberality.  When  it  is  considered  that  he  was  warmly 
attached  to  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  that  he  came  to  America  for  the 
express  purpose  of  founding  an  Episcopal  College;  his  Catholicism,  in 
patronizing  an  institution,  under  the  exclusive  direction  of  a  different  de- 
nomination, will  appear  worthy  of  high  praise.  , 

m  This  Library,  which  bore  the  name  of  its  founder,  was,  in  a  great 
measure,  destroyed  during  the  Revolutionary  w»r. 


DO 


><"> 


Nations  lately  become  Literary, 


tion  with  the  Loganian  Library,  forms  the  largest 
and  best  collection  of  books  in  the  United  States." 
In  1749  Dr.  Franklin  drew  up  the  plan  of  an 
Academy,  to  be  erected  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia, 
which  was  adopted  and  liberally  encouraged  ;  and 
the  seminary  was  established  in  the  beginning  of 
the  following  year.  In  1753,  through  the  interposi- 
tion of  his  learned  and  philosophic  friend,  Mr.  Col- 
linson,0  of  London,  a  Charter  was  obtained  for 
this  Academy,  from  the  proprietors  of  the  Pro- 
vince, accompanied  with  a  liberal  donation  to- 
wards its  funds.  In  1755  an  additional  Charter 
was  granted,  extending  the  plan  of  the  institution, 
and  forming  it  into  a  College/  The  first  Provost 
was  the  Rev.  Dr.  William  Smith,7  whose  popu- 


n  The  City  Library  of  Philadelphia  contains,  at  present,  between  eleven 
and  twelve  thousand  volurnes — say  eleven  thousand  five  hundred.  The 
Loganian  Library  consists  of  about  three  thousand  five  hundred,  making 
in  the  whole  a  collection  of  fifteen  thousand  volumes. 

o  Peter  Collinson,  F.R.  S.  was  a  native  of  Westmoreland,  in 
England,  and  resided  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in  the  city  of  London. 
He  was  much  distinguished  by  his  fondness  for  natural  history,  and  also 
by  his  desire  and  exertions  to  promote  literature  and  science  in  the  Ame- 
rican colonies.  He  long  maintained  a  friendly  correspondence  with  Lieu- 
tenant-Governor Colden,  of  New-York,  and  with  Dr.  Franklin,  aa 
well  as  with  other  American  gentlemen.     He  died  in  1768. 

p  In  the  establishment  of  this  seminary  on  its  original  plan,  and  in 
finally  erecting  it  into  a  College,  Dr.  Franklin  is  said  to  have  been 
chiefly  aided  by  the  counsels  and  exertions  of  Chief  Justice  Allen,  who 
was  much  distinguished  as  a  friend  to  literature;  by  Thomas  Hopkin- 
son,  Esq.  one  of  the  Governor's  Council;  by  the  Rev.  Richard  Pe- 
ters, Secretary  of  the  Province;  by  Tench  Francis,  Esquire,  At- 
torney-General;' and  by  Dr.  Phineas  Bond,  an  eminent  physician;  all 
residing  in  Philadelphia. 

q  The  Rev.  Dr.  William  Smith  was  a  native  of  Scotland,  and  re- 
ceived his  education  at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  where  he  graduated 
in  March,  1747.  The  three  following  years  he  spent  in  teaching  in  one 
of  the  parochial  schools  of  that  country ;  and  in  1750  was  sent  up  to 
London,  in  pursuance  of  some  plan  for  the  better  endowment  of  said 
schools.  In  London  he  was  induced  to  relinquish  the  employment  in 
which  he  was  engaged,  and  to  embark  for  America,  where  he  soon  after- 
wards arrived.  Here  he  was  employed  upwards  of  two  years  as  a  private 
tutor  in  the  family  of  Governor  Martin,  on  Long-Island,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  New -York.  In  this  situation  he  was  invited  to  take  charge  of 
the  College  in  Philadelphia,  to  which  he  consented;  and,  after  revisiting 
England,  and  receiving  regular  ordination  in  the  Episcopal  Church, 
(which  took  place  in  December, 1753),  he  returned  to  America;  and  in 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  353 

lar  talents,  and  taste  in  polite  literature,  contri- 
buted greatly  to  raise  the  character  of  the  College. 
He  was  principally  assisted  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Fran- 
cis Allison,  who  had  been  called  from  his  Aca- 
demy, before  mentioned,  to  the  office  of  Vice- 
Provost  in  this  seminary;  and  who,  perhaps,  still 
more  eminently  contributed  to  its  reputation  for 
solid  learning  and  useful  knowledge. 

The  effects  of  this  establishment  in  awakening 
the  attention  of  the  public  to  the  interests  of  learn- 
ing, and  in  exciting  a  taste  for  literature  in  Penn- 
sylvania, were  soon  visible.  The  first  Commence- 
ment took  place  in  a  short  time  after  the  second 
Charter  was  obtained,  when  the  honours  of  the 
institution  were  conferred  on  six  young  gentle- 
men," the  most  of  whom  became  afterwards  both 
conspicuous  and  useful  literary  characters,  and 
were  honourable  pledges  of  the  benign  effects 
which  this  College  was  destined  to  produce  on  the 
literature  and  science,  not  only  of  Pennsylvania, 
but  also  of  the  neighbouring  States. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned,  that  Dr.  Frank- 
lin's exertions  were  eminently  useful  in  promot- 
ing the  cause  of  liberal  knowledge  in  Pennsylva- 
nia. His  experiments  on  Electricity  were  pecu- 
liarly fitted  to  awaken  and  stimulate  the  public 
mind,  and  were  actually  found  to  produce  this  ef- 
fect, in  a  very  remarkable  degree,  both  in  Europe 


the  month  of  Mav,  17o4,  was  placed  at  the  head  of  this  infant  Seminary. 
The  talents  of  this  gentleman,  and  his  history,  from  the  time  of  his  in- 
duction into  the  office  cf  Provost,  until  his  death,  in  the  month  of  May, 
1803,  are  generally  known.  He  gave  important  aid  in  the  formation  and 
establishment  of  another  College  in  the  State  of  Maryland  ;  and  certainly 
rendered  important  service  to  the  literary  interests  of  America.  It  is  ex- 
pected that  his  Works,  in  several  volumes,  will  soon  be  laid  before  the 
public. 

r  These   were,  Jacob   Duche,  Samuel  Mag  aw,  James   Latta, 

Hugh  Williamson,  Francis  Hopkinson,  and Hall.     The 

first  three  became  eminent  Clergymen  ;  and  two  of  the  others  have  been 
long  celebrated,  in  America,  for  their  literary  distinction,  and  their  use- 
ful services  in  civil  life. 

VOL.   II.  =Z 


354  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

and  America.  He  was  soon  joined  by  Mr.  Tho- 
mas Hopkinson,  the  Rev.  Ebenezer  Kinnersley, 
Mr.  Philip  Syng,  and  others,  who  also  became 
distinguished  by  their  experiments  on  the  same 
branch  of  philosophy.  Mr.  Kinnersley  was  af- 
terwards appointed  a  Professor  in  the  College  of 
Philadelphia,  arid  was  one  of  the  active  promoters 
of  useful  knowledge  of  his  day/ 

In  the  province  of  New- York  the  interests  of  li- 
terature had  been  more  than  commonly  neglected 
before  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Few 
of  the  first  settlers  had  any  literary  taste  or  acquire- 
ments; and  though  now  and  then  an  individual 
came  to  the  province  from  Europe,  who  was  learn- 
ed, and  disposed  to  cultivate  letters/  yet  the  num- 
ber of  these  was  so  small,  and  the  great  body  of 
the  inhabitants  so  little  willing  to  second  any  en- 
deavours which  they  might  make  for  the  advance- 
ment of  knowledge,  that  every  thing  relating  to 
education  was  in  a  most  deplorable  state.  Some 
of  the  more  wealthy  inhabitants  sent  their  sons  to 
Holland,  or  to  Great-Britain,  to  be  educated,  while 
a  few  others,  to  whom  this  would  have  been  in- 
convenient, placed  their  children  in  Yale  College. 
From  these  sources  almost  all  tfTe  natives  of  New- 
York  who,  prior  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 

s  Mr.  Kinnersley  was  bred  a  Baptist,  and  was  for  some  time  & 
preacher  of  that  denomination;  but  afterwards,  taking  some  offence,  he 
kft  the  Baptist  communion,  laid  aside  his  clerical  character,  and  joined 
the  Episcopal  Church. 

t  Governor  Stuyvesant  appears  to  have  been  a  man  of  respectable' 
attainments  in  literature.  Out  of  the  small  number  of  Clergymen  who 
eame  to  the  province  in  early  times,  a  few  had  made  considerable  acquire- 
ments in  letters.  The  ancestors  of  the  Renssalaer,  the  Bayard,  the? 
Livingston,  and  the  Morris  families,  and  a  few  others,  who  first  came 
to  the  Colony,  had  also  been  liberally  educated.  Two  or  three  of  the 
Governors,  who  were  sent  at  different  times,  were  fond  of  literature,  and 
made  some  exertions  to  promote  it.  Of  this  character,  especially,  was 
Governor  Burnet.  To  these  might  be  added  some  other  names  did  our 
limits  allow  of  more  minute  details.  But  the  influence  of  these  could 
not  be  great,  when  the  mass  of  the  people  were  regardless  of  every 
literary  object. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  355 

century,  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  a  liberal  edu- 
cation, had  received  the  elements  of  knowledge. 

In  the  year  1729  a  small  Library  was  sent  over 
to  the  city  of  New- York,  by  the  "  Society  for  pro- 
pagating the  Gospel  in  foreign  parts/'  for  the  use 
of  the  Clergy,  and  other  gentlemen  of  this  and  the 
neighbouring  governments  of  Connecticut,  New- 
Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania.  This  was  the  first  pub- 
lic Library  that  was  introduced  into  the  Province; 
and  it  doubtless  contributed,  in  some  degree,  to 
awaken  and  extend  a  taste  for  reading. 

In  17S4  a  Society  was  established  in  the  city 
of  New- York,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  pub- 
lic Library  on  a  larger  scale,  and  upon  a  more  li- 
beral plan.  This  association  soon  received  the 
countenance  of  the  public,  and  immediately  began 
to  collect  books.  The  Library,  thus  begun,  has 
continued  to  grow  to  the  present  time,  and  now 
holds  the  third  place  among  the  public  Libraries 
of  the  United  States.**  This  establishment  fur-, 
nished  the  first  opportunity  enjoyed  by  the  citi- 
zens of  New-York,  in  general,  of  obtaining  access 
to  a  large  collection  of  books. 

About  this  time  some  of  the  inhabitants  of 
New- York,  the  greater  part,  if  not  all,  belong- 
ing to  the  Episcopal  Church,  began  to  form  the 
design  of  establishing  a  seminary  of  learning  on 
a  more  extensive  plan  than  any  which  had  hi- 
therto  been  known  in  the  province.  Animated  by 
the  exertions  made  to  found  a  College  at  Phila- 
delphia, they  undertook  to  erect  a  similar  institu- 
tion in  their  own  city.  At  the  head  of  the  associ- 
ation formed   for  this  purpose  was  Mr.  James 


«d  The  Philadelphia  Library,  including  the  Loganian,  contains  about 
fifteen  thousand  volumes  ;  the  Library  belonging  to  Harvard  College, 
about  thirteen  thousand ;  and  the  Library  of  New- York,  about  seven 
thousand. 


S56  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

DeLancey,"  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  province, 
who,  besides  the  aid  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Barclay,™ 
and  other  literary  gentlemen  of  Nevv -York,  was 
also  assisted  by  the  counsels  and  co-operation  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Johnson/  of  Connecticut,  and  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Chandler/  of  New-Jersey.    In  the  be- 

u  Mr.  James  De  Laxcey  was  a  native  of  New-York.  His  father, 
Mr.  Stephen  De  Lancev,  came  from  Normandy,  in  France,  among 
the  Protestants  who  tied  from  persecution  in  that  country.  The  son 
was  sent  to  England  for  his  education,  where,  about  the  year  1725, 
he  entered  the  University  of  Cambridge.  Here  he  had  the  honour  of 
"having  for  his  tu  or  Dr.  Herring,  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. Soon  after  his  return  home,  in  1729,  he  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Governor's  Council;  afterwards  tilled  the  office  of  Chief  Justice; 
became  Lieutenant-Governor  in  1753 ;  and  had  long  an  extensive  and  com- 
manding inriuer.ce  in  the  province.      He  died  about  the  year  1760. 

%v  The  Rev  Dr.  Henry  Barclay  was  a  native  of  Albany,  and  re- 
ceived a  liberal  education  at  Yale  College,  where  he  graduated  m  the  year 
1734.  Soon  after  leaving  College  he  went  to  Great-Britain,  where  he 
received  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  was  appointed  Missionary 
to  the  Mohawk  Indians.  Having  served  in  this  capacity  for  some  years, 
lie  was  called  to  the  city  of  New-York,  and  appointed  Rector  of  Trinity 
Church.  In  this  respectable  situation  he  continued  till  his  death,  which 
-cook  place  in  1765. 

x  The  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  was  bcrn  at  Guilford,  in  Con- 
necticut, October  14,  1696.  He  was  educated  at  Yale  College,  where  he 
took  his  first  degree,  in  the  year  1714.  In  1720  he  was  ordained,  by  a 
council  of  Congregational  Ministers,  and  installed  pastor  of  a  church  at 
West-Haven,  m  Connecticut.  After  remaining  in  this  situation  a  little 
more  than  two  years,  he  alered  his  views  concerning  the  doctrine,  wor- 
ship, and  government  of  the  church  with  which  he  was  connected,  and 
went  to  England,  where  he  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  in  the 
month  of  March,  1723.  From  this  time  till  the  year  1754,  Dr.  Johnson 
resided  at  Stratford,  in  Connecticut,  where  he  had  the  pastoral  care  of  an 
Episcopal  Church.  In  the  last  mentioned  year  he  removed  to  New-York, 
ana  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  office  as  President  of  King's  College.  In 
this  station  he  continued  till  February,  1763,  when  he  resigned,  returned 
to  Stratford,  and  there  again  exercised  his  ministry  till  his  death,  which 
happened  in  January,  1772.  Dr.  Johnson  was  a  man  of  distinguished 
talents  and  learning.  He  was  intimately  acquainted  with  Dean  Berke- 
ley, during  his  residence  in  Rhode-Island;  long  maintained  a  friendly 
correspondence  with  him  ;  and  became  a  convert  to  the  peculiar  metaphy- 
sical opinions  of  that  great  man.  Besides  other  smaller  works,  he  pub- 
lished a  Compendium  of  Logic^  and  another  of  Ethics,  which  were  printed 
together  in  an  octavo  volume,  in  1752,  by  D,-.  Franklin,  then  residing 
in  Philadelphia.  He  also  published  a  Hebrew  Grammar,  in  1767,  which 
evinced  an  accurate  acquaintance  with  tha:  language.  For  this  account 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  as  well  as  for  seme  other  facts  and  names  in  the  history 
of  American  literature,  the  Author  is  indebted  to  a  manuscript  Life  cf 
Dr.  Johnson,  drawn  up  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Chandler,  mentioned  in  the 
following  note. 
y  The  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  Bradbury  Chandler  was  a  native  of 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  357 

ginning  of  the  year  1753,  an  Act  of  Assembly 
:was  passed  for  the  establishment  of  the  College, 
and  making  some  provision,  by  a  succession  of  lot- 
teries, for  its  support.  In  October,  1754,  a  regu- 
lar Charter  of  incorporation  was  obtained,  and  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Johnson  named  therein  as  the  first  Pre- 
sident. He  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  office  in 
jthe  month  of  July  the  same  year,  and  held  the  first 
Commencement  in  June,  1758,  when  eight  young 
gentlemen,  alumni  of  the  College,  were  admitted 
to  its  honours.2 

The  Corporation  of  Trinity  Church,  in  the  city 
of  New-York,  early  countenanced  this  College, 
and  made  a  valuable  donation  to  its  funds.  The 
institution  also  received  important  aid  from  the 
Honourable  Joseph  Murray,"  one  of  his  Majes- 
ty's Council,  and  Attorney-General  for  the  Pro- 
vince. He  was  a  great  friend  to  literature,  and 
left  the  whole  of  his  estate,  consisting  of  books, 
lands,  and  other  property,  to  the  College.  The 
names  of  some  other  benefactors,  but  less  conspi- 
cuous than  these,  are  to  be  found  on  the  records 
of  the  institution. 

From  this  period  we  may  date  the  rise  of  a  lite- 
rary spirit  in  the  province  of  New- York.  It  is 
true,  this  spirit  was  possessed,  for  a  long  time 
afterwards,  by  comparatively  few  individuals,  and 

Connecticut,  and  received  his  education  in  Yale  College,  where  he  gra- 
duated Master  of  Arts  in  the  year  1745.  He  soon  afterwards  went  to 
England,  and  took  orders  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  settled  in  the  mi- 
nistry, at  Elizabeth-Town,  New-Jersey,  where  he  long  maintained  a  high 
character,  both  for  talents  and  erudition.  He  was  honoured  with  I 
gree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity  by  the  University  of  Oxford.  His  respectable 
and  useful  life  terminated   in  the  year  1790. 

Z  The  names  of  these  young  gentlemen  are,  Samuel  Verpi.axck, 
Rudolpjiis  Ritzema,  Philip  Van  Cortlaxdt,  Samcel  Pro- 
voost,  Joshua  Bloomer,  Joseph  Reed,  Josiah  Ogden,  and  Isaac 
Ocden. 

a  Joseph  Mvrray,  Esq.  was  a  native,  it  is  believed,  of  Great-Bri- 
tain, and  received  his  education  there.  The  value  of  the  estate  whi  ! 
left  to  the  College  amounted  to  about  ten  th  usand  p  unds  New-York 
currency,  or  twenty-five  thousand  doJJ 


358  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

produced  effects  by  no  means  so  general  or  im- 
portant as  the  friends  of  knowledge  could  wish : 
but  from  this  time  the  advantages  of  liberal  edu- 
cation were  more  frequently  enjoyed  in  the  pro- 
vince, and  some  of  those  who  were  destined  after- 
wards to  fill  the  most  conspicuous  stations  began 
to  receive,  at  home,  that  instruction  which  before 
could  only  be  received  in  other  colonies,  or  in 
European  seminaries. 

The  interests  of  literature  were,  at  this  time, 
going  on  prosperously  in  Massachusetts.  A  few 
years  before,  Mr.  Thomas  Hollis,6  of  London, 
an  active  friend  to  literature,  as  well  as  to  civil  and 
religious  liberty,  had  made  several  valuable  dona- 
tions to  the  University  of  Cambridge.  He  was 
followed  in  this  munificence  by  his  nephew,  of  the 
same  benevolent  disposition.  To  these  generous 
benefactors  that  institution  owes  much.  They  esta- 
blished two  Professorships,  one  of  Theology,  the 
other  of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy; 
they  presented  many  valuable  books  to  the  Uni- 
versity Library;'  and  made  other  donations  of 
considerable  value.  One  of  the  College  buildings, 
erected  in  1762,  was  called,  in  memory  of  these 
benefactors,  Hollis-Hall. 

While  the  Hollis  family  exercised  this  genero-- 
sity  towards  the  institution,  benefactors  were  not 
wanting  in  our  own  country,  to  imitate  their  lauda- 
ble munificence.   Thomas  Hancock/  Esq.  of  Bos- 

b  Different  members  of  the  Hollis  family  continued  their  liberal  do- 
nations to  this  College,  at  different  times,  from  an  early  period  of  the 
century  till  the  commencement  of  the  revolutionary  war. 

c  The  Library  of  Harvard  College  took  its  rise  soon  after  that  Institu- 
tion was  founded.  In  1764  it  consisted  of  about  five  thousand  volumes. 
In  the  winter  of  that  year,  the  greater  part  of  this  Library  was  destroyed 
by  fire,  with  one  of  the  College  buildings.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  gra- 
dually growing,  and  now  consists  of  about  thirteen  thousand  volumes. 
The  chief  contributors  to  this  Library  were  the  Mollis  family,  Thomas 
Hancock,  Esq.  Governor  Bowdoix,  Dr.  Franklin,  and  several  others. 

d  Thomas  Hancock,  Esq.  was  uncle  to  the  Honourable  John  Han- 
cock, President  of  Congress,  and  afterwards  Governor  of  Massachusetts. 
The  nephew,  as  well  as  the  uncle,  was  also  a  benefactor  to  the  College* 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  359 

ton,  founded  aProfessorship  of  Oriental  Languages, 
and  contributed  generously  to  the  enlargement  of 
the  Library.  Nocholas  Boylstone,  and  Edward 
Hopkins,  Esquires,  also  deserve  to  be  respectively 
mentioned  as  among  the  benefactors  of  this  im- 
portant seminary,  and  as  enlightened  friends  to 
literature  and  science. 

In  the  former  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  by 
far  the  greater  portion  of  the  book-printing  done 
in  the  American  Colonies  was  executed  in  Bos- 
ton. No  where  did  so  many  original  American 
publications  issue  from  the  press;  and  no  where 
was  so  much  enterprize  manifested  in  republish- 
ing European  works.  These  works,  it  is  true,  were 
chiefly  on  theological  subjects,  and  comparatively 
few  of  a  literary  or  scientific  nature  were  circu- 
lated among  the  people,  by  means  of  American 
presses ;  but  still  the  books  which  were  edited, 
had  a  tendency  to  enlarge  the  public  mind,  and  to 
render  a  taste  for  reading  more  general. 

In  Connecticut,  at  this  time,  literature  and  sci- 
ence were,  on  the  whole,  gaining  ground.  The 
appointment  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cutler/  as  Presi- 
dent of  Yale  College,  was  an  auspicious  event  to 
that  institution.     He  was  a  man  of  profound  and 

e  The  Rev.  Dr.  Timothy  Cutler  received  his  education  at  Har- 
vard College,  where  he  graduated  in  1701.  In  1710  he  was  ordained 
and  installed  minister  of  a  Church  in  Stratford,  according  to  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  Churches  in  Connecticut.  In  1719  he  was  chosen  Presi- 
dent of  Yale  College,  and  entered  on  the  duties  of  the  office  the  same 
year.  In  1722  he  relinquished  the  communion  of  the  Congregational 
Church,  and  soon  afterwards  went  to  England,  and  received  orders  in 
the  Episcopal  Church.  He  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  in  Divinity  from 
both  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  He  became  Rector  of 
Christ  Church,  in  Boston,  in  the  year  1723,  where  he  died  in  1765.  He 
is  represented  to  have  been  a  man  of  strong  natural  powers,  and  cf  exten- 
sive learning.  He  was  well  acquainted  with  classic  literature,  and  was 
one  of  the  best  Oriental  scholars  ever  educated  in  America.  The  Rev. 
Dr.  Stiles  says,  "  he  had  more  knowledge  of  the  Arabic  than  an} 
man  in  New-England  before  him,  except  President  Chauxcey,  and  his. 
disciple,  the  first  Mr.  Thatcher."  Dr.  Cutler  was  also  well  skilled 
in  Logic,  Metaphysics,  Moral  Philosophy,  Theology,  and  Ecclesiastical 
History. 


560  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

general  learning  in  the  various  branches  of  know- 
ledge cultivated  in  his  day,  particularly  in  Oriental 
Literature,  and  presided  over  the  seminary  which 
he  was  called  to  superintend,  with  dignity,  use- 
fulness, and  general  approbation.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Rev.  Elisha  Williams/  who  was 
inaugurated  in  the  year  1726.  Under  his  admi- 
nistration also,  the  College  flourished,  especially 
in  the  study  of  Classic  Literature,  Logic,  Metaphy- 
sics, and  Moral  Philosophy.  The  successor  of 
President  Williams  was  still  more  illustrious. 
This  was  the  Rev.  Thomas  Clap/  who  was  cho- 
sen President  in  1739,  and  formally  inducted  into 
office  the  next  year.  He  appears  to  have  been 
one  of  the  most  profound  and  accurate  scholars 
ever  bred  in  Connecticut;  and  during  the  course 
of  his  Presidency,  which  continued  till  1767,  he 
succeeded  in  producing  a  greater  attention  than 
had  been  before  paid  to  the  abstruse  sciences,  par- 
ticularly to  Mathematics,  Astronomy,  and  the  va- 
rious branches  of  Natural  Philosophy.  This  period, 
indeed,  may  be  considered  as  forming  an  era  in 
the  literary  history  of  Connecticut. 

Passing  on  to  Virginia,  a  few  facts  and  names 
appear  there  about  this  time  which  are  worthy  of 

f  Mr.  "Williams  was  a  good  classical  scholar,  and  well  versed  in  Lo- 
gic, Metaphysics,  and  Ethics.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Doddridge,  who  was  ac- 
quainted with  him  in  England,  gave  him  this  comprehensive  character. 
««  I  look  upon  ?4r.  Williams  to  be  one  of  the  most  valuable  men  upon 
earth.  He  has  joined  to  an  ardent  sense  of  religion,  solid  learning,  con- 
summate prudence,  great  candour,  and  a  certain  nobleness  of  soul,  capable 
of  contriving  and  acting  the  greatest  things,  without  seeming  to  be  consci- 
ous of  his  having  done  them." 

g  The  Rev.  Thomas  Clap  was  born  at  Scituate,  in  Massachusetts, 
in  1703;  graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1722;  settled  in  the  ministry, 
at  Windham,  in  Connecticut,  in  1726;  became  President  of  Yale  College 
in  1739 ;  and  died  in  1767.  He  was  respectably  learned  in  the  Greek, 
Latin,  and  Hebrew  languages;  but  in  the  higher  branches  of  Mathe- 
matics, in  Astronomy,  and  in  the  various  departments  of  Natural  Philo- 
sophy, he  had  probably  no  equal  at  that  time  in  America,  excepting  Pro- 
fessor Winthrop,  of  Cambridge.  He  appears  also  to  have  been  exten- 
sively and  profoundly  read  in  History,  Theology,  Moral  Philosophy, 
Canon  and  Civil  Law,  and,  indeed,  in  most  of  the  objects  of  £'-.:. 
tended  to  at  that  time. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary,  361 

notice/     The  first  printer  introduced  in  that  Co- 
lony, was   about  the  year  1726,  when  William 
Parks  settled  there  in   that  capacity.     The  first 
work  of  any  consequence  printed  in  the  Colony, 
was  the  body  of  Laics,  in  folio,  in  1733,  by  the  per- 
son above-mentioned.  The  foundation  of  a  Library 
in  William  and  Alary  College  was  early  laid.  This 
was   augmented  from   time  to  time,    by  various 
means,  particularly  by  private  donations,  from  se- 
veral friends  of  literature,  until  it  became  a  very 
respectable  collection.     The  additions  to  it  with- 
in a  few  years  past  have  been  few  and  small;  hence 
it  abounds  more  in  ancient  than  modern  works. 

Nor  was  Virginia,  by  any  means,  even  at  this 
early  period,  without  instances  of  honourable  lite- 
rary enterprize.  The  Histories  of  the  Colony,  pub- 
lished respectively  by  Stith  and  Beverley,  are 
generally  known.  The  former  was  a  respectable 
Clergyman,  and  President  of  the  College;  and 
though  he  did  not  write  elegantly,  he  was  a  faith- 
ful and  judicious  historian.  The  latter  wrote  with 
{ess  prolixity  and  tediousness,  but,  at  the  same 
ime,  with  a  less  satisfactory  fulness  of  informa- 
tion. Several  other  instances  of  literary  exertion, 
made  at  this  period  in  Virginia,  might  be  mention- 
ed, did  our  limits  admit  of  going  into  further  par- 
ticulars. 

Among  the  promoters  of  literature  in  Virginia, 
at  this  time,  it  will  be  proper  to  mention  Colonel 
Byrd,  a  native  of  that  Colony,  who  had  been  li- 
berally educated  in  Great-Britain,  and  possessed 
a  very  ample  estate.  Few  private  persons  in  Ame- 
rica ever  collected  so  large  or  so  valuable  a  Library 

h  Some  of  the  names  and  facts  mentioned  in  this  section,  relating  to 
the  progress  of  letters  and  science  in  Virginia,  were  communicated  to  the 
author,  in  a  letter  from  Bishop  Madisox,  of  Williamsburgh.  The 
services  rendered  to  the  cause  of  liberal  knowledge  in  America,  and  par., 
ticularly  in  his  own  State,  by  this  enlightened  Philosopher  and  Divide* 
are  well  known. 

YOL.  II,  a 


362  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

as  be  left.  He  was  a  very  ardent  friend  to  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  freely  opened  his  Li- 
brary for  the  use  of  all  who  sought  information. 
Colonel  Byrd  died  about  the  middle  of  the  cen- 
tury. He  made  a  few  small  publications,  but  they 
were  not  of  a  nature  to  command  much  of  the 
public  attention  at  this  time. 

In  North-Carolina  and  Georgia  nothing  worthy 
of  notice  was  done  for  the  promotion  of  literature, 
until  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In 
those  provinces  there  was  not,  until  this  period,  a 
single  seminary  of  learning  worthy  of  the  name; 
no  native  citizen  had  been  at  all  distinguished 
for  his  attainments  in  knowledge.  Of  the  few 
clergymen  then  residing  in  those  provinces,  the 
greater  part  were  both  illiterate  and  dissipated ; 
and  almost  all  those  of  the  learned  professions, 
who  were  tolerably  well  informed,  were  either 
foreigners,  or  had  received  their  education  abroad. 

The  literary  situation  of  South-Carolina,  in  the 
former  part  of  the  century  under  review,  was 
much  more  respectable/'  At  the  commencement 
of  this  period,  all  the  literary  characters  in  that 
province  were  Europeans.  The  Clergy  were  few, 
and  not  more  than  one  of  them  had  been  born 
in  the  province.  The  Physicians  were  also  Eu- 
ropeans, and  chiefly  persons  who  had  connec- 
tions with  the  British  army  or  navy.  The  same 
mav  be  affirmed  of  the  Lawyers;  these  all  resided 
in  Charleston,  and  were  from  Great-Britain  or  Ire- 
land. In  1700  a  provincial  library  was  established 
in  Charleston,  by  the  munificence  of  the  Lords 
Proprietors,  and  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  Bray. 
This  introduced  a  taste  for  reading  among  a  por- 

i  For  the  greater  part  of  what  is  here  stated  respecting  South-Carolina, 
the  author  is  indebted  to  Dr.  David  Ramsay,  of  Charleston,  who,  on 
application,  favoured  him  with  a  full  and  instructive  communication  on 
the  subject. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  363 

tion  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1712  a  Free  School  was 
established  in  that  city,  for  "  instructing  the  youth 
of  the  province  in  Grammar,  and  other  arts  and  sci- 
ences, and  useful  learning,  and  also  in  the  Christian 
Religion. "J  In  this  seminary  the  Greek  and  La- 
tin languages  were  taught,  by  a  succession  of  able 
instructors,  and  some  good  classical  scholars  were 
formed.  Besides  the  free  school,  several  private 
Academies  were  also  formed  a  few  years  af- 
terwards, and  had  a  useful  influence.  All  the 
teachers  in  these  seminaries  were,  for  a  consider- 
able time  after  their  establishment,  either  from 
Europe  or  from  the  Northern  Colonies.  The  first 
printer  appears  to  have  settled  in  Charleston  be- 
tween the  years  1720  and  1730.  The  first  news- 
paper in  the  Colony  was  printed  in  1730. 

The  first  native  of  South-Carolina  who  received 
a  literary  degree  was  Mr.  Josiah  Smith,  who 
was  born  in  Charleston,  in  the  year  1704,  gradu- 
ated at  Cambridge,  in  Massachusetts,  in  1725,  and 
afterwards  became  a  learned  and  respectable  mi- 
nister of  the  Presbyterian  Church/  The  next  in- 
stance of  a  native  of  South-Carolina  receiving  aca- 
demic honours,  was  that  of  Mr.  William  Bull, 
who  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine,  at 
Leyden,  in  1735/  He  was  followed  by  Mr.  John 
Moultrie,  who  received  the  same  degree  from 


j  In  this  seminary  there  were  two  instructors;  a  Principal,  -with  a  sa- 
lary of  £.  400  sterling  per  annum  ;  and  an  Usher,  with  a  salary  of  £.  209, 
both  paid  from  the  public  treasury.  These  were  liberal  salaries  consider- 
ing the  time  and  the  situation  of  the  colonists. 

k  Mr.  Smith  published  a  volume  of  Sermons  in  1752,  and  several  oc- 
casional discourses  before  and  after.  He  also  maintained  a  learned  dispu- 
tation, in  1739,  with  the  Rev.  Mr.  Fisher,  on  the  right  of  private  judg- 
ment. He  closed  an  useful  and  honourable  life  in  1781,  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  whither  he  had  been  induced  to  fly  during  the  Revolu- 
tionary- war. 

/  The  name  of  Dr.  Bull  was  mentioned  in  a  former  chapter.  On  oc- 
casion of  his  receiving  a  medical  degree  at  Leyden,  he  wrote  and  de- 
fended an  inaugural  dissertation.  Be  Colica  Pkionum.  He  was  afterwards 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  South -Carolina. 


364-         Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

an  University  in  Europe,  in  1749."*    Both  of  these 
were  eminent  for  literature  and  medical  science. 

The  literary  foreigners  who  came  to  South-Ca- 
rolina, at  this  early  period,  were  numerous.  Dr. 
John  Lining,  a  native  of  Scotland,  and  a  man  of 
excellent  education,  came  to  that  Province  as  early 
as  1725  or  1730.  He  was  eminent  as  a  phy- 
sician and  philosopher."  He  corresponded  with 
Dr.  Franklin  on  the  subject  of  Electricity,  and 
was  the  first  person  who  introduced  an  Electrical 
Apparatus  into  Charleston.  Dr.  Lionel  Chal- 
mers, who  came  to  the  Colony  from  Great- 
Britain  in  the  former  part  of  the  century,  was  also 
much  distinguished  for  medical  science,  and  for 
his  various  and  extensive  knowledge.0  Dr.  Alex- 
ander Garden,  also  from  Great-Britain,  about 
the  same  time,  was  deservedly  celebrated  as  a  phy- 
sician and  natural  historian.  Mr.  Mark  Catesby, 
an  English  naturalist,  came  to  South-Carolina  in 
the  year  1722,  and  resided  four  years  in  the  Co- 
lony, where  he  did  much  for  promoting  the  know- 
ledge of  Botany  and  Zoology/     To  these  may  be 

m  Dr.  Moultrie  wrote  and  defended  a  dissertation,  De  Febre  Flava.. 
He  was  afterwards  Lieutenant-Governor  of  East-Florida. 

n  In  1740  Dr.  Lining  prosecuted,  and  afterwards  published,  a  series 
of  judicious  statical  experiments.  And  in  1753  he  published  a  History  of 
Yellow  Fever,  which  was  the  first  account  of  that  disease  that  had  been 
given  from  the  American  Continent. 

o  Dr.  Chalmers  published  a  valuable  work  on  the  Weather  and  Dis- 
eases of  South-Carolina,  London,  1776.  But  his  most  respectable  and 
useful  work,  is  an  Essay  on  Fevers,  published  at  Charleston,  in  1767.  Be- 
sides these,  he  made  several  smaller  publications. 

p  Mark  Catesby,  F.R.  S.  was  born  in  England,  in  the  year  1679- 
He  had  an  early  and  strong  propensity  to  the  study  of  Natural  History  ; 
and  having  some  relations  in  Virginia,  he  determined  to  gratify  his  taste 
for  inquiries  of  this  nature,  by  exploring  a  part  of  the  New  World.  He, 
therefore,  went  to  that  Colony  in  1712,  where  he  staid  seven  years,  ad- 
miring and  collecting  the  productions  of  the  country.  During  this  period 
he  made  numerous  botanical  communications  to  his  friends  in  Great-Bri- 
tain. He  returned  to  England  in  1719 ;  but  soon  afterwards,  encou- 
raged by  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  Dr.  Sherard,  and  other  naturalists,  he 
determined  to  make  another  visit  to  America,  and  accordingly  embarked 
for  South-Carolina,  where  he  arrived  in  May,  1722.  He  now  remained 
four  years  in  the  country,  exploring  Carolina,  Georgia,  the  Floridas,  and 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  36$ 

added  the  Rev.  Isaac  Chanler,  the  Rev.  Alex- 
ander Garden,  the  Rev.  Henry  Haywood,  and 
the  Rev.  Richard  Clarke,  all  from  England, 
who  settled  in  Carolina,  as  clergymen,  and  be- 
came conspicuous  not  only  by  their  learning  and 
talents,  but  also  by  means  of  various  publications 
of  more  or  less  value,  which  yet  remain  to  attest 
the  reality  of  both.7 

But  notwithstanding  the  literary  taste,  conversa- 
tion, and  writings  of  these  individuals,  the  insti- 
tutions formed  for  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  were 
few  in  number,  and  by  no  means  of  respectable 
character.  For  the  first  thirty  years  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  Free  School  before-mentioned  was 
the  only  grammar  school  in  South-Carolina.  For 
the  next  forty  years  there  were  only  three  in  the 
Province,  and  all  these  were  in  Charleston,  or  its 
vicinity.  In  1749  an  association  was  formed  in 
Charleston,  for  the  establishment  of  a  public  Li- 
brary; but  it  was  not  till  towards  the  close  of  the 
century  that  this  institution  grew  to  any  high  de- 

the  Bahama  islands.  Returning  to  England  in  1726,  he  employed' him- 
self for  a  number  of  years  in  preparing  for  publication  his  great  work, 
entitled,  The  Natural  History  of  Carolina,  Florida,  and  the  Bahama  Is- 
lands. The  first  part  of  this  work  appeared  in  1730,  and  it  was  com- 
pleted in  1748,  in  two  volumes  fojio.  He  died  in  London,  in  1749.  Gro- 
novius,  of  Leyden,  called  a  shrub  of  the  Tetrandrous  class  Catesbea,  after 
him. 

q  The  Rev.  Isaac  Chanler  was  born  at  Bristol,  in  England,  in  1701, 
and  came  to  South-Carolina  in  1733.  He  settled,  as  Pastor  of  a  Baptist 
Church,  on  Ashley  River,  in  1736,  where  he  continued  till  his  death,  in 
1749.  Besides  several  smaller  works,  he  published,  The  Doctrines  of  Glo- 
rious Grace  unfolded,  defended,  and  practically  improved,  4to.  Boston,  1744. 
The  Rev.  Alexander  Garden  was  a  different  person  from  the  physi- 
cian and  naturalist  of  the  same  name.  He  made  several  publications  on 
theological  subjects.  The  Rev.  Henry  Haywood  arrived  in  Charles- 
ton, from  England,  in  1739,  from  which  time,  till  his  death,  in  1755,  he  wag 
minister  to  the  Socinian  Baptists  in  that  city.  He  translated  into  English, 
Dr.  Whitby's  Treatise  on  Original  Sin;  and  had  prepared  for  the  press 
a  large  volume  in  defence  of  the  Apostolical  Constitutions.  He  published 
a  defence  of  Dr.  Whitby,  against  Dr.  Gill,  and  also  a  Catechism. 
The  Rev.  Richard  Clarke,  from  England,  was  an  elegant  classical 
scholar.  He  published  several  pieces  on  the  Prophecies,  and  on  Universal 
Redemption.  He  was  for  some  time  Rector  of  St.  Philip's  Church  la 
Charleston. 


566  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

gree  of  respectability;  so  that  until  the  Revolu- 
tionary war  it  was  customary  for  the  more  wealthy 
either  to  employ  private  tutors  of  respectable  cha- 
racter in  their  families,  or  to  send  their  sons  to  fo- 
reign universities.  In  one  or  the  other  of  these 
ways,  a  large  portion  of  the  best  scholars,  and 
most  eminent  public  characters  in  the  State,  were 
formed. 

While  Catesby  and  Garden  were  cultivating 
Natural  History  in  Carolina,  this  noble  branch  of 
science  was  by  no  means  neglected  in  some  of 
the  other  Provinces.  Paul  Dudley,  Esquire,  of 
Massachusetts,  at  an  early  period  of  the  century, 
made  some  valuable  communications  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  London,  on  zoological  and  botanical 
subjects.  Lieutenant-Governor  Golden/  of  New- 
York  >  before-mentioned,  w7as  much  devoted  to  the 


r  Cadwallader  Colder,  Esquire,  who  has  been  repeatedly  men- 
tioned in  former  chapters,  was  born  in.  Scotland,  February  17,  1688.  Ke 
•was  the  son  of  a  clergyman  ;  and  after  having  received  the  elements  of  a 
liberal  education  under  the  care  of  his  father,  he  completed  his  studies 
at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  in  1705.  He  afterwards  applied  him- 
self to  the  study  of  Medicine,  and  Mathematical  Science,  until  the  year 
1708,  when,  allured  by  the  fame  of  William  Penn's  Colony,  and  by  the 
invitation  of  a  relative,  he  came  over  to  Pennsylvania.  There  he  engaged 
in  the  practice  of  physic,  until  the  year  1715,  when  he  returned  to  his 
native  country.  He  staid,  however,  but  a  short  time  in  Scotland;  for 
the  next  year,  after  forming  a  matrimonial  connection,  he  came  a  second 
time  to  America,  where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  days.  In  1718  he 
removed  to  New-York,  but  soon  afterwards  relinquished  the  practice  of 
Physic,  and  became,  in  succession,  Surveyor-General  of  the  Province, 
Master  in  Chancery,  Member  of  the  Council,  and  Lieutenant-Governor. 
In  1755  he  retired  with  his  family  to  Coldingham,-  his  seat  on  the  Hud- 
son, where  he  spent  the  greater  portion  of  his  after  life.  Here  he  par- 
ticularly devoted  himself  to  Botanical  studies,  and  to  a  correspondence 
with  learned  men  in  Europe  and  America.  Both  he  and  his  Daughter, 
(also  a  great  Botanist),  corresponded  with  Linnjeus,  who,  in  honour  of 
the  latter,  called  a  plant  of  the  Tetrandrous  class,  Coldenea.  This  plant 
Miss  Colden  had  rirV.  described.  Dr.  Colden  died  in  1776;  his  prin- 
cipal publications  are,  Plant.?  Coldinghamenses,  in  the  Acta  Upsalensia,  for 
1743  and  1744.  Principles  of  Action  in  Matter,  &c  4to.  London,  Dodsley, 
1753.  The  History  of  the  Five  Indian  Nations,  two  vols.  12mo.  1?'47, 
besides  several  smaller  works  on  Tellovo  Fever,  On  toe  Cure  of  the  Cancer, 
On  the  Malignant  Sore  Ihroat,  &c.  8cc  He  was  undoubtedly  a  man  of  va- 
rious and  extensive  learning,  of  respectable  talents,  and  of  great  literal/ 
Industry.     See  Hardie's  Biography,  vol.  ii.  p.  131. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  367 

study  of  Botany,  and  made  important  contribu- 
tions towards  a  knowledge  of  American  plants; 
especially  of  that  part  of  America  which  was  in 
the  vicinity  of  his  residence.  Mr.  John  Bar- 
tram/  of  Pennsylvania,  was  the  first  native  Ame- 
rican who  conceived  and  carried  into  effect  the 
plan  of  a  Botanic  Garden/  for  the  reception  and 
cultivation  of  indigenous  as  well  as  exotic  plants, 
and  of  travelling  for  the  purpose  of  accomplishing 
this  plan.  He  did  much  to  explore  the  natural  his- 
tory of  his  native  country.    Dr.  John  Mitchell," 


s  Mr.  John  Bartram  was  born  near  Darby,  in  Chester  County, 
Pennsylvania,  in  the  year  1701.  His  grandfather,  of  the  same  name, 
had  come  to  the  Colony  in  1682,  with  the  celebrated  William  Penn. 
This  self-taught  genius  early  discovered  a  great  thirst  for  the  acquisition 
of  knowledge,  and  especially  of  botanical  knowledge.  He  travelled  in 
pursuit  of  it  with  unwearied  diligence,  in  various  parts  of  his  native 
country,  from  Canada  to  Florida,  and  made  such  proficiency  in  the  studr, 
that  Linnjeus  is  said  to  have  pronounced  him  the  "greatest  natural  bo- 
tanist in  the  world."  He  corresponded  with  many  of  the  most  distin- 
guished men  of  science,  both  in  America  and  in  Europe.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  several  of  the  most  eminent  Societies  and  Academies  abroad ; 
and  was,  at  length,  appointed  Botanist  to  his  Britannic  Majesty  George 
III.     He  died  in  1777,  in  the  seventy-sixth  year  of  his  age. 

t  It  cannot  be  said,  that  Mr.  Bartram  formed  a  Botanic  Garden,  in 
the  scientific  sense  of  the  expression  ;  but  he  made  a  large  and  valuable 
collection  of  plants,  on  his  farm  near  Philadelphia,  which  his  sons  have 
kept  up  to  the  present  day. 

v  Dr.  John  Mitchell,  who  was  mentioned  in  a  former  chapter,  as 
having  come  from  England  to  Virginia  early  in  the  last  century,  appears 
to  have  been  a  man  of  observation,  acuteness,  and  enterprize,  as  well  as 
cf  learning.  His  residence  in  Virginia  was  chiefly  at  Urbanna,  a  small 
town  on  the  Rappahannock,  about  seventy-three  miles  from  Richmond. 
He  was  a  great  Botanist,  and  seems  to  have  paid  particular  attention 
to  the  Hybrid  productions.  He  wrote  an  useful  work  on  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  Botany,  and  containing  descriptions  of  a  number  of  new  genera, 
of  plants,  which  was  published  in  4io.  in  1769.  He  also  wrote,  in  1743, 
an  "  Essay  on  the  Causes  if  the  different  Colours  of  People  in  differ  nit  Cli- 
mates," which  was  sent  over  to  Mr.  Colli nson,  and  published  in  the 
Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  xliii.  p.  102 — 150.  Besides  these,  he  pub- 
lished an  "  Essay  on  the  Preparations  and  Uses  of  the  various  Kinds  of 
Pot-Ashy  Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  xlv.  p.  541 — 563  ;  and  a  "  Letter 
concerning  the  Force  of  Electrical  Cohesion."  Philosophical  Transactions, 
vol.  li.  p  390.  See  Pulteney's  Sketches  of  the  Progress  of  Botany,  &c.  vol.  ii. 
p.  278,  &c.  It  is  believed  the  same  man  was  the  author  of  the  Map  of 
North-America,  published  in  1755,  which  he  accompanied  with  a  large 
Pamphlet,  entitled,  "  The  Contest  in  America;"  and  soon  followed  by 
another  Pamphlet,  entitled,  "  The  Present  State  of  Great-Britain  and 
North-America"  1767.     See  American  Husbandry,  &c.  vol.  i..  p.  285. 


$6 8  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

who  resided  some  time  in  Virginia,  and  Dr.  John1 
Clayton,"  a  native  of  that  country,  both  rendered 
important  services  in  investigating  the  botanical 
treasures  of  America.  To  several  of  these  the 
iovers  of  natural  history  owe  a  large  debt  of  grati- 
tude ;  nor  can  any  one  take  the  most  superficial 
view  of  the  progress  of  science  in  America  with- 
out immediately  recognizing  the  extent  and  the 
utility  of  their  labours. 

The  controversy  respecting  the  introduction  and 
support  of  Bishops  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  in  the 
American  Colonies,  may  be  considered  as  forming 
an  important  epocha  in  the  literary  history  of  our 
country.  Every  inquiry  which  induces  men  of  learn- 
ing and  talents  to  write,  and  which  contributes  to 
form  good  writers,  deserves  to  be  considered  as  an 
era  in  the  progress  of  literature.  The  controversy 
above-mentioned  was  certainly  useful  in  both  these 
respects.  It  called  into  action  latent  talents,  and  by 
rousingthe  public  attention,  and  interesting  the  feel- 
ings of  some  of  the  most  learned  men  in  the  country, 
it  gave  rise  to  a  number  of  publications,  and,  no 
doubt,  extended  the  taste  for  inquiry  and  reading. 
In  this  controversy,  the  principal  writers  were  Dr. 
Jonathan  Mayhew,w  Dr.  Charles  Chauncey/ 

u  Dr.  John  Clayton  was  a  native  of  Virginia,  and  devoted  a  long 
life  to  the  investigation  of  its  botanical  riches.  He  was  a  private  country 
gentleman,  of  moderate  fortune,  and  greatly  respected  by  all  who  knew 
him.  He  resided  in  Gloucester  County,  about  eighteen  or  twenty  miles 
from  the  city  of  Wiliiamsburgh.  Clayton's  work  appears  to  have  been 
first  printed  under  the  following  title;  "  Flora  Virginica :  Numeri  Plan- 
tarum  in  Virginia  Obser -cat arum,  a  Johanne  Claytono.".  8vo.  1739— • 
1743.  It  was  afcerwards  published  under  this  title :  Joh.  Fred.  Grono- 
vii,  Flora  Virginica,  exhibens  Plantas  quas  J.  Claytonus  observavit, 
follegit  et  obtulit,  ijfc.     Ladg.  Bat.  4to.  1762. 

iv  Dr.  Mayhew  was  pastor  of  the  West  Church  in  Boston.  He  was 
a  man  of  distinguished  learning  and  talents.  His  principal  work  on  this 
subject  was  written  in  1764. 

x  Dr.  Charles  Chauxcey  was  born  in  Boston,  in  the  year  1705, 
graduated  at  Harvard  College  in  1721 ;  was  installed  pastor  of  the  First 
Church  in  Boston  in  1727 ;  in  which  station  he  continued  till  1787 ;  when 
he  was  removed  by  death.  Dr.  Chauncey  was  descended  from  the  cele- 
brated man  of  the  same  name,  who,  in  the  days  of  Archbishop  Laub, 


Natiojis  lately  become  Literary.  369 

Mr.  East  Apthorp/  and  Dr  Henry  Ganer,  of 

Massachusetts;  Dr.  Samuei  Johnson,  Dr.  Sa- 
muel SeaBury/ Rev.  Mr.  Hobart,  Dr.  Welles," 
and  Mr.  Beach,  of  Connecticut;  William  Liv- 
ingston,6 Esq.  and  Dr.  Myles  Cooper/  of  New- 

came  to  New-England,  became  President  of  Harvard  College,  and  was 
much  celebrated  fi  r  his  erudition,  and  especially  for  his  acquaintance  with 
Oriental  literature.  His  descendant,  of  whom  we  are  speaking,  was  also 
a  man  of  strong  mind,  and  extensive  learning,  and  eminently  distin- 
guished for  his  firmness  and  integrity.  Besides  several  things  which  he 
wrote  on  the  American  Episcopate,  he  published  a  treatise  on  The  Bene- 
vtolence  of  the  Deity.  1724.  Five  Dissertations  on  the  Fall  and  its  Conse- 
quences.  h'S5.   And  a  work,  entitled,  The  Salvation  of  all  Men.  1/85. 

y  The  Rev.  East  Apthorp  was,  for  a  considerable  time,  the  Rector 
of  an  Episcopal  Church  in  Cambridge,  near  Boston.  He  left  America  in 
the  course  of  the  .revolutionary  war.  Besides  what  he  published  in  his 
own  country,  he  has  made  at  least  one  publication  since  he  resided  in 
England,  on  the  deisrical  controversy,  which  is  an  honourable  testimony 
both   of  his  learning  and  talents. 

z  The  Rev.  Samuel  Seabury  was  Rector  of  an  Episcopal  church  at 
New-London,  in  Connecticut,  where  he  held  a  station  among  his  clerical 
brethren  of  high  respectability  and  influence.  He  was  afterwards  Bishop 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  that  State  ;  and  was  the  first  of  this  order  that 
ever  resided  in  America.  Besides  smaller  tracts,  he  published,  during  his 
life,  two  volumes  oi Sermons,  which  show  him  to  have  possessed  a  vigor- 
ous and  well  informed  mind.  A  supplementary  volume  of  Sermons,  se- 
lected from  his  manuscripts,  was  published  in  1798,  two  qr  three  years 
after  his  death. 

a  The  Rev.  Mr.  Hobart,  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  Welles,  were  Congre- 
gational ministers  of  great  distinction  in  Connecticut,  the  former  resid- 
ing at  Fairfield,  and  the  latter  at  Stamford.  They  both  took  an  active  part 
in  the  controversy  respecting  the  American  Episcopate,  and  wrote  ably  on 
the  subject.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Beach  was  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  and 
was  considered  by  those  who  espoused  the  cause,  in  support  of  which  he 
embarked,  as  a  respectable  advocate  of  his  Church. 

6  William  Livingston,  LL.  D.  was  a  member  of  a  family  which 
emigrated  from  North-Britain,  and  which  has,  for  more  than  a  century, 
held  a  respectable  and  important  station  in  New-York.  He  was  born 
about  the  year  1723,  and  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1741.  After  sus- 
taining some  important  offices  in  New-York,  his  native  State,  he  removed 
into  New-Jersey,  and  was  ihe  first  Governor  of  that  State  after  the  de- 
claration of  Independence.  He  continued  to  fill  this  office  with  great  ho- 
nour to  himself,  and  with  great  usefulness  to  the  State,  till  the  time  of  his 
death  in  1790.  Mr.  Livingston  made  a  variety  of  publications,  besides 
those  which  related  to  the  question  of  an  American  Episcopate,  all  of 
which  indicate  genius,  taste,  and  learning.  He  was  possessed  of  uncom- 
mon strength,  discrimination,  and  vivacity  of  mind.  Proposals  have  been 
lately  made  for  publishing  his  works  in  several  volumes. 

c  The  Rev.  Myles  Cooper  was  a  native  of  England,  and  received 
his  education  at  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  succeeded  Dr.  Samuel 
Johnson,  as  President  of  King's  College,  which  office  he  held  a  number 
of  years.     He  maintained  a  literary  character  of  considerable  eminence. 

VOL.  II.  3B 


370  Nations  lately  become  Literary, 

York;  Dr.  Chandler,  of  New- Jersey;  Dr.  Wil-» 
liam  Smith,  of  Pennsylvania;  and  Mr.  Boucher* 
of  Maryland.  From  the  middle  of  the  century* 
to  the  commencement  of  the  revolutionary  war* 
this  subject  engaged  much  attention,  and  employed 
many  pens  in  the  American  Colonies/ 

The  establishment  of  the  Medical  School  in  Phi- 
ladelphia'forms  an  important  era  in  the  progress  of 
American  science.  Before  this  time,  there  were 
no  means  of  completing  a  regular  medical  educa- 
tion in  the  American  Colonies,  and  all  who  wished 
to  obtain  such  an  education,  were  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  going  to  Europe  for  the  purpose.  Hence, 
when  the  plan  of  a  medical  school  was  formed  in 
Philadelphia,  it  became  an  object  of  peculiar  im- 
portance and  interest  in  the  view  of  all  who 
wished  well  to  the  improvement  of  the  country. 
The  plan  was  formed  by  Dr.  William  Shippen, 
and  Dr.  John  Morgan,  both  natives  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  began  to  be  executed  in  the  year  1764. 
In  that  year  Dr.  Shippen  gave  the  first  course  of 
lectures  upon  Anatomy  that  was  ever  delivered 
in  America.  In  1765,  Dr.  Morgan  began  to 
give  a  course  of  public  instruction  on  the  Institutes 
of  Medicine.  In  1768,  Dr.  Adam  Kuhn,  also  a 
native  of  Pennsylvania,  and  a  favourite  pupil  of 
the  celebrated  Linnjeus,  commenced  a  system  of 
lectures  on  Botany  and  Materia  Medica;  and  in 
1769,  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  who  had  just  returned 
from  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  began  to  lec- 
ture on  Chemistry.  These  lectures,  which  were 
delivered  by  the  aforesaid  gentlemen,  as  Professors 
of  the  College  of  Philadelphia,  were  all  of  them 
the  first  attempts  of  the  kind  which   had  been 

d  The  Rev.  Drs.  Rodgers,  Mason,  Laidlie,  and  Inglis,  all  of 
New-York,  also  wrote  and  published  on  the  subject  of  the  American  Epis- 
copate, but  less  formally  and  extensively  than  the  persons  mentioned- 
above. 

«  See  vol.  i.  p.  320. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  371 

made  upon  any  regular  plan,  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic.  The  medical  school,  thus  formed,  soon 
became  an  object  of  public  attention ;  was  resorted 
to  by  pupils  from  different  parts  of  the  then  Colo- 
nies ;  has  been  since  gradually  increasing;  and,  at 
present,  not  only  holds  the  first  rank  among  simi- 
lar institutions  in  the  United  States,  but  will  bear 
a  very  honourable  comparison  with  some  of  the 
best  medical  seminaries  in  Europe. 

In  1767,  an  attempt  was  also  made  to  establish 
a  medical  school  in  King's  College,  in  the  city  of 
New-York/  Professors  were  appointed  by  the 
Governors  of  that  institution,  to  teach  the  various 
branches  of  medical  science  ;  and  a  few  courses  of 
lectures  were  given;  but  the  design  was  not  pur- 
sued with  so  much  success  as  in  Pennsylvania;  it 
was  wholly  set  aside  by  the  revolutionary  war, 
and  did  not  revive  again  to  any  purpose,  until  the 
year  1792,  when  it  was  established  on  a  new  and 
better  foundation,  as  was  stated  in  another  place, 
and  now  holds  the  second  rank  among  the  medi- 
cal schools  of  the  United  States. 

The  institution  of  the  Philosophical  Society  in 
Philadelphia,  also  deserves  to  be  noticed  among 
the  events  favourable  to  the  progress  of  know- 
ledge in  America,  which  took  place  about  this 
time.  Dr.  Benjamin  Franklin  was  the  father 
of  this  institution;  but  he  was  ably  assisted  and 
supported  in  his  exertions  for  its  establishment, 
by  the  Rev.  Drs.  Ewing  and  Smith,  by  the  me- 
dical and  other  Professors  of  the  College  of  Phila- 
delphia, and  by  a  number  of  the  friends  to  litera- 
ture and  science,  then  residing  in  that  city.  The 
Association  was  organized  in  1769;  and  none 
who  are  acquainted  with  the  progress  of  science 
in  America  need  to  be  informed,  that  it  has  been 

f  See  vol.  i.  p.  321 


372  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

signally  useful  in  exciting  a  thirst  for  knowledge 
in  our  country,  in  calling  into  view  scientific  ac- 
quirements which  were  before  hidden;  and  in  pro- 
ducing a  laudable  emulation,  not  only  among  its. 
members,  but  also  among  other  friends  of  learning 
in  the  remotest  parts  of  the  United  States/ 

The  Transit  of  Venus,  as  it  happened  in  the 
year  1769,  gave  occasion  to  the  exertion  and 
developement  of  a  considerable  portion  of  that 
mathematical  and  astronomical  skill  which  ex- 
isted in  our  country,  but  had  hitherto  been  little 
displayed.  This  phenomenon  attracted  much  at- 
tention in  the  American  Colonies  ;  great  prepara- 
tions were  made  for  observing  it  ;  and  the  observa- 
tions published  by  several  philosophers  on  this  side 
the  Atlantic,  were  considered  in  Europe  as  highly 
honourable  to  themselves,  and  useful  to  the  cause 
of  science.  The  talents  displayed  on  this  occasion 
by  the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Ewing,*  Dr.  David  Rit- 

g  This  Institution,  in  1771,  consisted  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty- 
five  members.  Of  these,  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  were  inhabitants  of 
Pennsylvania?  ten  of  Massachusetts;  two  of  Rhode-Island ;  four  of  Con- 
necticut; eleven  of  New-York;  eleven  of  New-Jersey;  three  of  Dela- 
ware ;  five  of  Maryland ;  four  of  Virginia ;  five  of  South-Carolina ;  one 
of  Georgia;  tea  of  the  West-India  Islands,  and  twenty-five  of  Europe. 

/.)  The  Rev.  John  Ewing,  D.  D.  was  born  in  East-Nottingham,  in  Ma- 
ryland, June  22,  1732.  His  classical  studies  were  begun  under  Dr.  Al- 
ilisox,  at  Nevv-London.  He  afterwards  went  to  the  College  of  New- 
Jersey,  where  he  graduated  in  1755.  In  1759,  he  received  a  call  to  take 
the  pastoral  charge  of  the  first  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  city  of  Phila- 
delphia, which  he  accepted,  and  remained  in  this  station  during  the 
whole  of  his  after  life.  In  1773  he  went  to  Great-Britain  and  Ireland, 
on  a  mission  to  solicit  benefactions  for  the  Academy  at  New-Ark,  in  De- 
laware, which  was  before-mentioned.  During  this  visit,  he  formed  an 
acquaintance  with  some  of  the  most  distinguished  characters  in  those 
countries,  and  maintained  a  correspondence  with  them  long  afterwards. 
In  1779  he  was  chosen  Provost  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  which 
office,  as  well  as  his  pastoral  charge,  he  retained  till  his  death.  In  all 
the  branches  of  science  usually  taught  in  Seminaries  of  learning,  more 
particularly  in  Mathematics,  Astronomy,  and  every  branch  of  Na- 
tural Philosophy  ;  in  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew  languages,  and  in 
Logic,  Metaphysics,  and  Moral  Philosophy,  he  was  probably  one  of  the 
most  accurate  and  profound  scholars  which  his  country  can  boast  of  hav- 
ing reared.  He  died  in  1802,  in  the  seventy-first  year  of  his  age,  after 
having  held,  for  near  half  a  century,  a  distinguished  place  among  the 
literati  of  America,.    Those  who  wish  to  receive  more  particular  infor- 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  37$ 

tenhouse,1'  the  Rev.  Dr.  Smith,  Dr.  Hugh  Wil- 
liamson, and  several  others,  of  Pennsylvania  ;  l>y 
Mr.  Benjamin  West,  of  Rhode-Island  ;  by  Pro- 
fessor Win throp/  of  Massachusetts;  and  by  some 
other  American  Astronomers,  are  too  well  known 


nation  concerning  the  life,  accomplishments,  and  publications  of  this 
great  man,  will  be  gratified  with  the  perusal  of  a  Discourse  delivered  on 
occasion  ,f  bit  Death,  by  the  Rev.  John  Blair  Linn,  D.  D.  a  cc n.pre- 
hensive  and  eloquent  eulcgium,  which  does  honour  to  the  Author,  as  well 
as  to  the  Object  of  his  panegyric. 

t  David  Rittenhouse,  LL.D.  F.  R.  S.  was  born  a*  German- 
town,  near  Philadekihif,  AprilS,  1732.  He  was  not  favoured  with  a 
regular  Academic  education,  but  he  was  endued  with  a  genius  which  rose 
above  all  difficulties,  and  which  soon  entitled  him  to  a  place  among  the 
most  distinguished  ornaments  of  his  country.  He  early  discovered  a 
fondness  for  Mathematical  and  Astronomical  inquiries,  and  was  indulged 
by  his  parents  in  learning  the  trade  of  a  clock  and  mathematical  instru- 
ment-maker, in  which  he  was  his  own  instructor.  While  he  resided  with 
his  father,  in  the  country,  he  made  himself  maser  of  Newton's /V//<ci- 
pia,  which  he  read  in  the  translation  of  Mr.  Mott.  Here,  likewise,  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  science  of  Fluxions,  of  which  sublime  inven- 
tion, he  believed  himself,  for  a  time,  to  be  the  au  hor.  1  he  first  oc- 
casion on  which  his  knowledge  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy  was  sig- 
nally displayed,  was  in  observing  the  Transit  of  Venus,  in  1769,  when  he 
discovered  a  mind  familiar  with  the  most  abs.ruse  and  complicated  inves- 
tigations. It  was  in  this  retirement,  also,  that  he  planned  and  executed 
his  far-famed  Orrery,  in  which  he  represented  the  revolutions  of  the  hea- 
venlv  bodies,  in  a  manner  more  complete  and  comprehensive  than  an)  ior- 
mer  astronomer.  After  this,  his  talents  were  displayed  on  various  public 
occasions,  and  were  admired  and  celebrated,  not  only  throughout  his  <  wn 
country,  but  among  the  philosophers  of  Europe.  Dr.  Rittenhovse,  on 
account  of  that  modesty  for  which  he  was  always  remarkable,  published 
but  little.  An  Oration  delivered  before  the  Philosophical  Society  in  1775, 
and  a  few  Memoirs  on  Mathematical  and  Astronomical  subjects,  con- 
tained in  the  first  three  volumes  of  the  Transactions'  e$  that  body,  firm 
the  whole  list  of  his  publications.  He  was  kaued  with  honours,  both 
by  the  State,  and  by  literary  and  scientific  institutions.  He  was  chosen 
President  of  the  Philosophical  Society  in  1791 ;  and  was  annually  re-elected 
to  this  office  till  his  death  in  1796.     See  Dr.  Rush's  Eulogiimi. 

j  John  Winthrop,  LL.D.  F.  R.  S.  was  born  in  Boston,  in  1714, 
and  educated  at  Harvard  College,  where  he  received  his  first  degree  in 
1732.  In  1738  he  was  appointed  Hollis  Professor  of  Mathematics  and 
Natural  Philosophy  in  the  College  in  which  he  was  educated.  He  imme- 
diately entered  on  the  duties  of  this  office,  which  he  executed  with  great 
ability  and  reputation  till  his  death  in  1779.  He  was  a  man  of  Seneral 
and  profound  learning ;  but  particularly  so  in  the  branches  of  science  which 
he  undertook  to  teach.  His  work,  De  Cumeris,  does  him  great  honour. 
That  he  was  known  and  respected  among  the  philosophers  oi  Lurope,  is 
evident  from  his  being  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society;  an  honour 
which  had  been  conferred  on  a  native  of  Massachusetts  only  in  one ^in- 
stance before,  viz.  in  the  case  of  the  celebrated  Cotton  Mather.  MS, 
Letter  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Eliot  to  the  author. 


374?  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

to  render  any  particular  details  on  the  subject  ne- 
cessary here. 

In  1769,  a  College  was  founded  in  the  town  of 
Hanover,  in  New-Hampshire.  Of  this  Institution, 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Eleazer  Wheelock  was  the  foun- 
der; and  the  Earl  of  Dartmouth  being  one  of  its 
most  liberal  benefactors,  it  was  called  after  him, 
Dartmouth  College.  Dr.  Wheelock  had  been,  for 
some  years  previous  to  that  above-mentioned,  the 
conductor  of  a  Charity  School,  at  Lebanon,  in 
Connecticut,  which  was  principally  intended  for 
the  instruction  of  Indian  youth/  About  that  time, 
it  being  found  that  the  School,  on  its  original  nar- 
row establishment,  was  not  sufficient  to  answer 
the  purposes  which  its  friends  had  in  view,  a  royal 
Charter  was  obtained,  constituting  a  College,  and 
naming  Dr.  Wheelock  as  the  first  President,  with 
the  privilege  of  nominating  his  successor  in  his  last 
will.  The  Charity  School,  together  with  the  newly 
constituted  College,  was  removed  to  Hanover,  in 
New-Hampshire,  where  both  have  been  ever  since 
fixed.  And  though  neither  of  them  flourished  dur- 
ing the  revolutionary  war,  which  soon  succeeded, 
yet,  since  the  restoration  of  peace,  they  have 
grown  considerably ;  the  College,  in  particular, 
having  become,  at  the  close  of  the  century,  a  large, 
respectable,  and  thriving  seminary/ 

k  The  first  Charity  School  erected  in  America  for  the  instruction  of  the 
Indians,  was  at  Stockbridge,  in  Massachusetts,  by  the  Rev.  John  Ser- 
geant, between  the  years  1740  and  1750.  He  had  scarcely  gotten  his 
plan  into  operation,  before  he  was  removed  by  death.  The  design  was 
revived  by  the  Rev.  Eleazer  Wheelock,  who  solicited  and  obtained 
donations  for  the  purpose,  both  in  Europe  and  America  ;  and  opened  a 
School  at  Lebanon,  which  was  called  after  the  name  of  Mr.  Joshua 
Moor,  who  was  the  largest  benefactor  to  the  institution.  When  Dart- 
mouth College  was  founded  at  Hanover,  this  School  was  removed  thither, 
•where  it  has  ever  since  continued,  connected  with  the  College,  but  dis- 
tinct as  to  its  property,  design,  and  government.  Dr.  E.  Wheelock  died 
in  1779,  in  the  sixty-seventh  year  of  his  age,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
John  Wheelock,  LL.  D.whohasever  since  presided  over  the  institution. 

/  Among  the  benefactors  to  this  institution,  besides  King  George  III. 
Lord  Dartmouth,  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon  and  several  other  pes- 


Nations  lately  become  Liter  an] .  37£ 

About  this  time  we  may  date  the  establish  men t 
of  a  College  at  Providence,  in  Rhode-Island, 
This  institution  was  erected  by  certain  persons  of 
influence  of  the  Baptist  denomination,  and,  among 
these,  perhaps  no  individual  so  well  deserves  to  be 
considered  as  its  founder,  as  the  Rev.  Dr.  Man- 
ning,'" the  first  President.  The  charter  for  this 
College  was  given  in  1764.  It  was  open  for  the 
reception  of  students  the  next  year,  at  Warren. 
The  first  commencement  was  held  in  1769  ;  and 
in  1770,  it  was  removed  to  the  town  of  Providence, 
where  a  spacious  building  was  erected  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  students,  and  which  is  considered 
as  the  permanent  seat  of  the  institution.  The 
charter  of  this  College  makes  it  necessary,  that 
the  President  should  be  a  Baptist,  and  indeed  the 
institution  has  always  been  under  the  immediate 
government  of  this  denomination  of  christians. 

Between  the  years  1765  and  1772,  a  revolution 
took  place  in  the  taste  of  the  students  in  Yale  Col- 
lege. About  this  time,  the  study  of  the  Mathe- 
matics, and  of  the  Ancient  Languages,  began  to 
decline,  and  that  of  Belles  Lettres  to  be  an  object 
of  more  attention  than  before.  This  revolution  was 
chiefly  produced  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Dwight,  who 
has  since  held  so  conspicuous  a  place  among  the 
poets  and  divines  of  America ;  by  Mr.  John  Trum- 
bull, who  also  stands  in  the  first  rank  of  our  na- 
tive poets;  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Howe,  afterwards  a 

sons  of  eminence  in  Europe,  we  find  the  names  of  Dr.  Franklin-,  Johjt 
Adams,  Esquire,  late  President  of  the  United  States,  John  Jay,  Esquire, 
late  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  and  Governor  of  the  State  cf  New- 
York,  and  the  Honourable  John  Phillips,  of  Exeter,  in  New-Hampshire. 
m  The  Rev.  Dr.  Manning  was  born  in  New-Jersey,  in  the  year 
1738  He  was  educated  at  Nassau-Hall,  where  he  was  admitted  to  th« 
first  honours  of  the  College  in  1762.  In  1765  he  removed  to  Warren,  in 
Rhode-Island,  and  there  took  charge  of  the  College,  to  the  Presidency  of 
which  he  had  been  elected.  In  1/70  he  removed,  with  that  institution,  to 
Providence,  and  was  soon  afterwards  chosen  pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church 
in  that  town.  In  this  situation  he  remained  till  hi*  death,  which  took 
place  in  1791. 


376  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

respectable  clergyman,  and  by  some  others,  their 
contemporaries.  These  gentlemen,  being  instruc- 
tors in  the  College  at  this  time;  and  having  im- 
bibed a  more  predominant  taste  for  polite  literature 
than  had  been  common  among  their  predecessors; 
encouraged  among  the  students,  both  by  precept 
and  example,  a  new  degree  of  attention  to  the 
best  writers  in  their  own  language,  and  to  the 
graces  of  composition.  The  change,  however, 
was  carried  to  a  greater  length  than  its  enlightened 
authors  intended  or  approved.  Designing  only  to 
raise  the  study  of  polite  literature  to  its  proper  sta- 
tion, it  soon  began  to  usurp  the  place  of  the  more 
abstruse  sciences,  and  of  the  ancient  languages; 
which,  though  still  studied  with  considerable  care, 
have,  perhaps,  never  since  regained  their  former 
important  station  in  that  seminary. 

The  arrival  of  Dr.  Witherspoon"  in  America, 
from  North-Britain,  is  entitled  to  notice  among 
the  events  which  contributed  to  the  advancement 
of  literature  and  science  in  our  country.  It  is 
not  to  be  supposed,  that  a  mind,  so  vigorous, 
enlightened,  and  active  as  his,  and  placed  in  a 
conspicuous  station,  could  fail  of  contributing  to 

n  Dr.  John-  Witherspoon*  was  born  at  Yester,  near  Edinburgh,  Feb- 
ruary 5,  1722.  After  being  settled  in  the  Gospel  ministry,  for  up- 
wards of  twenty  years,  in  North-Britain,  he  came  to  America  in  1768, 
and  continued  to  preside  over  the  College  of  New-Jersey  from  that  time 
till  his  death  in  1794.  Whether  we  consider  Dr.  Witherspoon  as  a 
Divine,  a  Statesman,  or  the  Head  of  a  literary  institution,  his  talents 
and  usefulness  present  themselves  in  a  very  conspicuous  light.  Scarcely 
any  man  of  the  age  had  a  more  vigorous  mind,  or  a  more  sound  practical 
understanding  ;  and  though  many  have  had  more  learning,  yet  a  mass  of 
information  better  selected,  or  more  thoroughly  digested,  than  that  which 
he  possessed,  is  rarely  to  be  found.  See  an  excellent  Sermon  preached  on 
the  occasion  of  his  death,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Rodgers,  of  New-York, 
which  contains  a  comprehensive  and  ably  drawn  character  of  the  deceased. 
Though  the  largest  and  most  valuable  part  of  Dr.  Witherspoon's  writ- 
ings was  published  before  he  left  Britain,  yet  he  wrote  and  published  much 
after  his  removal  to  America.  Mr.  W.  W.  Woodward,  of  Philadelphia, 
has  lafely  rendered  important  service  to  the  cause  of  religion  and  litera- 
ture, by  collecting  the  whole  of  his  works,  and  presenting  two  editions 
of  them  to  the  American  public. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  377 

the  literary  advancement  of  any  community  in 
which  he  resided.  Invited  to  undertake  the  office 
of  President  of  the  College  of  New-Jersey,  this 
great  man  arrived  at  Princeton  in  the  year  1768, 
and  immediately  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  new 
station.  He  produced  an  important  revolution  in 
the  system  of  education  adopted  in  this  seminary. 
He  extended  the  study  of  Mathematical  science^ 
and  introduced  into  the  course  of  instruction  on 
Natural  Philosophy,  many  improvements  which 
had  been  little  known  in  most  of  the  American 
Colleges,  and  particularly  in  that  institution.  Pie 
placed  the  plan  of  instruction  in  Moral  Philoso- 
phy on  a  new  and  improved  basis;  and  was,  it  is 
believed,  the  first  man  who  taught,  in  America, 
the  substance  of  those  doctrines  of  the  philosophy 
of  the  Human  Mind,  which  Dr.  Reid  after- 
wards developed  with  so  much  success.  And 
finally,  under  his  presidency,  more  attention  be- 
gan to  be  paid  than  before  to  the  principles  of 
taste  and  composition,  and  to  the  study  of  elegant 
literature. 

About  the  same  time  the  study  of  the  Physical 
Sciences  received  new  encouragement  in  Virginia. 
Hitherto  comparatively  small  attention  had  been 
paid  to  Natural  Philosophy  in  theCollegeof  William 
and  Mary;  or  not  more  than  reading  some  common 
treatise  on  this  subject,  with  a  very  inadequate  de- 
gree of  attention  or  understanding.  In  1768  a  va- 
luable, though  not  very  extensive  Philosophical  Ap- 
paratus was  imported  from  London,  for  the  use  of 
that  institution ;  and  in  1774  the  first  regular  course 
of  lectures  on  the  subject  was  delivered  by  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Madison,  since  President  of  the  College,  and 
Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  Virgi- 
nia, whose  services  in  the  promotion  of  literature  and 
science  in  that  State  are  generally  known.  Since 
that  time,  natural  philosophy  has  been  almost  con- 

VOL.    II.  9C 


378  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

stantly  growing  in  the  number  of  its  votaries,  and 
in  the  degree  of  attention  which  it  has  received. 

The  attention  which  was  paid  to  this  College  by 
Lord  Botetourt,  one  of  the  last  Governors  of 
Virginia,  while  a  British  Colony,  deserves  to  be 
noticed  here,  as  honourable  to  himself,  and  as  use- 
ful to  the  institution.  His  exertions  to  promote 
its  interests  were  zealous  and  unremitted.0  Among 
other  things,  he  instituted  an  annual  contest  among 
the  students,  for  two  elegant  gold  medals,  of  the 
value  of  five  guineas  3  one  for  the  best  Latin  ora- 
tion on  a  given  subject ;  the  other  for  superiority 
in  Mathematical  science.  And  though  the  useful 
effects  of  his  exertions  were  rendered  in  a  great 
measure  abortive,  by  the  scenes  of  war  and  con- 
fusion which  soon  followed,  yet  they  were  by  no 
means  without  their  value. 

About  the  year  1774,  another  College  was 
founded  in  Virginia.  It  was  for  some  time  no- 
thing more  than  a  respectable  Academy;  but  af- 
ter a  few  years  assumed  the  name,  and  became 
invested  with  the  powers  of  a  College.  The  Rev. 
Samuel  S.  Smith,  now  President  of  the  College 
of  New-Jersey,  and  whose  literary  eminence  is 
well  known,  may  be  considered  as  the  founder  of 
this  institution.  It  is  called  Hampden  Sidney  Col- 
lege, and  has  been  useful  in  training  up  a  number 
of  good  scholars;  but  is  not  now  considered  as  in 
a  very  nourishing  situation. 

But  among  the  various  remarkable  periods  in 
the  progress  of  American  Literature,  there  are  few 
more  worthy  of  our  notice  than  the  American  Re- 
volution; a  grand  struggle,  which  both  awakened 

o  Lord  Botetourt  made  a  point,  for  a  long  time,  of  sanctioning,  by 
his  presence,  morning  and  evening  prayers  in  the  College.  No  com- 
pany, no  avocations,  prevented  his  attendance  on  this  service.  This  no- 
bleman was  extremely  fond  of  literary  characters.  No  one  of  this  class, 
who  had  the  least  claims  to  respect,  was  ever  presented  to  bun  whora 
foe  did  not  foster  and  encourage. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  379 

and  produced  talents;  and  which,  by  giving  birth 
to  many  publications,  served  to  impart  new  vigour 
to  minds  little  distinguished  before,  and  to  improve 
the  public  taste.  Hence  it  is  a  fact,  that  the  style 
in  which  the  Petitions  and  Remonstrances  of  the 
American  Congress,  at  that  time,  and  other  poli- 
tical writings  of  the  day,  were  drawn  up,  excited 
surprize  in  Europe,  and  gave  new  elevation  to  the 
literary  character  of  our  country. 

Among  those  who  distinguished  themselves  at 
this  period  by  their  publications,  relating  to  the 
great  political  contest  which  divided  America,  wc 
may  enumerate  James  Otis,  Josiah  Quincy, 
Samuel  Adams,  John  Adams,  and  Thomas 
Hutchinson,  of  Massachusetts;  William  Li- 
vingston, and  John  Witherspoon,  of  New- 
Jersey;  John  Dickinson/  and  Joseph  Gallo- 
way,7 of   Pennsylvania;   Daniel  Dulaney/  of 

p  John-  Dickinsons  Esq.  who  is  a  native  of  the  State  of  Delaware, 
and  at  present  resides  in  that  State,  received  a  considerable  part  of  his 
education  in  Great-Britain,  from  which  he  had  returned  but  a  few  years 
when  the  controversy  between  the  Colonies  and  the  Mother  Country  com- 
menced. He  wrote  and  published  much  on  this  controversy  at  different 
periods ;  but,  perhaps,  among  the  numerous  and  respectable  publications 
which  were  made  at  this  time,  the  Farmer's  Letters,  for  dignity,  elo- 
quence, learning,  and  permanent  reputation,  ought  to  be  considered  as 
holding  the  first  place.  The  eclat  with  which  this  work  was  received, 
the  useful  effects  which  it  produced,  and  the  public  acknowledgments  and 
honours,  which  have  been  since  heaped  upon  the  author,  are  too  gene- 
rally known  to  render  it  either  necessary  or  proper  to  dwell  on  them 
here.  A  handsome  edition  of  the  Works  of  this  illustrious  American,  in 
two  volumes  octavo,  issued  in  1801,  from  the  press  of  Messrs.  Bonsai  and 
Niles,  in  Wilmington. 

q  Joseph  Galloway,  Esq.  is  a  native  of  the  State  of  Delaware.  Ke 
received  a  liberal  education;  and  among  other  public  honours  conferred 
upon  him,  was  a  delegate  to  the  American  Congress  from  Pennsylvania, 
until  the  declaration  of  Independence,  when  he  thought  it  his  duty  to  op- 
pose the  measures  adopted  by  that  body,  and  to  attach  himself  to  the 
friends  of  the  British  government.  He  was  a  respectable  writer  in  favour 
of  the  latter,  and  at  an  early  period  of  the  revolutionary  war,  went  to 
England,  where  he  still  resides.  Mr.  Galloway  has  lately  published  a 
work  on  the  subject  of  the  Prophecies,  which  is  spoken  of  with  great  re- 
spect, as  indicating  talents,  learning,  and  piety. 

r  Daniel  Dulaney,  Esq.  was  an  eminent  counsellor,  who  resided 
at  Annapolis.  He  was  considered  as  one  of  the  most  learned  and  accom- 
plished men  in  his  profession,  that  our  country  ever  produced.  He  died 
IX  an  early  stage  of  the  revolutionary  war. 


380         Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

Maryland ;  Richard  Bland,  Arthur  Lee,  Re- 
bert  Carter  Nicholas,  and  Thomas  Jeffer- 
son, of  Virginia;  and  William  Henry  Dray-. 
ton/'  of  South-Carolina.'  Besides  these,  a  num- 
ber of  writers  of  smaller  name  embarked  in 
the  same  cause,  and  contributed  to  the  mass  of 
inquiries  and  publications  which  the  period  pro- 
duced. And  though  the  distresses  of  the  times 
served  to  derange  and  almost  to  destroy  some  im-r 
portant  literary  institutions;  yet,  during  this  pe- 
riod, seeds  were  sown  which  were  destined  soon 
afterwards  to  spring  up  and  to  bring  forth  fruit 
highly  honourable  to  our  country. 

The  revolutionary  war  was  no  sooner  terminated 
"by  the  peace  of  1783,  than  the  friends  of  literature 
began  to  feel  more  than  ever  the  importance  of 
encouraging  institutions  for  diffusing  useful  know- 
ledge among  the  people.  Indeed,  before  the  din 
of  arms  ceased  to  be  heard,  plans  began  to  be 
formed,  and  in  some  instances  to  be  executed,  for 
the  promotion  of  this  object.  The  inhabitants  o( 
the  American  States  now  not  only  felt  indepen- 
dent, in  a  political  view,  but  they  also  began  to 
cherish  the  wish  for  greater  literary  independence 
than  they  had  heretofore  enjoyed.     The  zeal  and 

5  William  Henry  Drayton,  Esq.  a  native  of  South-Carolina,  was 
a  political  writer  of  considerable  eminence.  In  1774  he  wrote  a  pamphlet, 
addressed  to  the  American  Congress,  under  the  signature  of  A  Freeman, 
in  which  he  stated  the  grievances  of  America,  and  drew  a  bill  of  Ameri- 
can Rights.  Several  other  publications  appeared  from  his  pen,  explain- 
ing the  injured  rights  of  his  country,  and  encouraging  his  fellow-citizens 
to  vindicate  them.  He  also  wrote  an  History  of  the  American  Revolution, 
brought  down  to  the  year  1779,  in  three  large  volumes,  which  he  intended 
to  correct  and  publish,  but  was  prevented  by  death.  He  died  in  Phila- 
delphia in  1779,  while  attending  his  duty  in  Congress,  in  the  thirty-se- 
venth year  of  his  age. 

i  The  author  regrets,  that  it  is  not  in  his  power  to  give  a  more  com- 
plete catalogue  of  the  writers  on  the  American  controversy.  Many  well 
written  pamphlets  on  both  sides  of  this  question,  were  published  anony- 
mously. This  was  especially  the  case  with  those  who  wrote  in  favour  of 
the  British  claims ;  so  that  out  of  the  large  number  who  belong  to  the 
latter  class,  only  Lieutenant-Governor  Hutchinson,  and  Mr.  Gallo= 
way,  ?,re  sufficiently  known  to  be  particularly  mentioned. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  381 

enterprize  which  had  been  directed  against  the 
common  enemy  were  now  turned  towards  domes- 
tic improvement. 

In  1780  an  act  passed  the  Legislature  of  Mas- 
sachusetts for  establishing  the  American  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences .v  Its  design  was  to  promote 
every  species  of  liberal  knowledge  that  might  tend 
to  "  advance  the  interest,  honour  and  happiness  of 
a  free,  independent  and  virtuous  people."  This 
institution  soon  rose  into  importance;  and,  from 
the  character  of  its  members,  and  of  the  publica- 
tions which  it  has  made,  may  be  considered  as 
among  the  most  respectable  and  useful  associa- 
tions in  the  United  States. 

About  this  time  three  gentlemen  of  the  name  of 
Phillips,"  one  residing  at  Andover,  in  Massachu- 
setts, another  at  Exeter,  in  New-Hampshire,  and 
a  third  in  Boston,  exercised  a  degree  of  munifi- 
cence, which  is  equally  rare,  in  this  country,  and 
honourable  to  their  generosity  and  love  of  litera- 
ture. In  1778  the  Honourable  Samuel  Phillips, 
of  Andover,  founded  and  liberally  endowed  an 

i>  The  Hon.  James  Bowdoin,  afterwards  Governor  of  the  Common- 
wealth, and  a  man  of  taste  and  science,  was  the  first  President  of  the 
American  Academy.  He  was  also  a  liberal  benefactor  to  the  institution, 
and  continued  to  preside  over  it  with  honour  until  his  death,  in  1790.  Ano- 
ther conspicuous  benefactor  to  this  association  was  Josiah  Quincy, 
Esquire,  a  learned  and  eloquent  counsellor,  a  distinguished  patriot,  and 
an  able  political  writer.  To  these  may  be  added,  the  Hon.  John  Adams, 
late  President  of  the  United  States,  and  now  President  of  the  Academy, 
and  Dr.  Franklin,  who  also  made  important  donations  to  the  institu- 
tion. But  the  greater  part  of  the  funds  of  the  Academy  consist  of  five 
thousand  dollars,  presented  to  it  by  our  illustrious  countryman  Count 
Rum  ford,  who,  in  1796,  made  a  donation  of  the  above  sum,  the  interest 
of  which  is  to  be  applied  and  given  once  every  second  year,  as  a  premium 
to  the  author  of  the  most  important  discovery,  or  useful  improvement, 
which  shall  be  made  known  to  the  public  in  any  part  of  the  Continent  of 
America,  or  in  any  of  the  American  islands,  during  the  preceding  two 
years,  on  Light  or  on  Heat. 

u  The  family  of  Phillips,  in  Massachusetts  and  New-Hampshire, 
has  been  long  distinguished  for  its  great  wealth,  and  also,  for  its  love 
of  religion  and  literature.  A  complete  history  of  the  munificence  exer- 
cised towards  public  institutions  at  different  times,  by  the  members  of  this 
family,  would  probably  furnish  an  amount  of  benefactions  seldom  equalled 
pi  this  country. 


S82  Nations  lately  become  Liter  art;. 

Academy  in  the  town  in  wh'ch  he  resided.  In  this 
laudable  undertaking  he  was  aided  by  his  brothers, 
the  Honourable  John  Phillips,  LL.D.  of  Exeter* 
and  William  Phillips,  Esq.  of  Boston.  Not 
long  afterwards  the  former  of  these  brothers 
founded,  and  very  richly  endowed  an  Academy  at 
Exeter,  the  place  of  his  residence.  Both  these 
academies  are  called  by  the  name  of  the  family  to 
whom  they  owe  their  existence;  both  continue  to 
grow  in  respectability  and  usefulness,  and  are  likely 
long  to  remain  monuments  of  the  noble  and  distin- 
guished public  spirit  which  gave  them  birth.™ 

Immediately  on  the  return  of  peace,  a  College 
was  established  in  the  town  of  Carlisle,  in  Penn- 
sylvania. This  institution  received  the  name  of 
Dickinson  College,  being  called  after  the  celebrated 
statesman  and  political  writer,  John  Dickinson, 
Esq.  who  was  its  most  liberal  benefactor*  Doctor 
Rush  also,  and  several  other  gentlemen  of  distinc- 
tion in  Pennsylvania,  were  among  the  most  active 
friends  and  promoters  of  this  establishment.  Soon 
after  the  Charter  for  this  College  was  obtained, 
the  Rev.  Dr,  Charles  Nisbet,  of  Montrose,  in 
Scotland,  was  called  to  be  its  President.  He  ac- 
cepted the  invitation,  and  in  the  year  1784  arrived 
in  America.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say,  that 
the  eminent  talents,  and  profound  and  general 
learning  of  this  gentleman,  were  considered  as  an 
important  acquisition  to  the  literary  interests  of 
our  country,  and  that  he  soon  contributed  to  raise 
the  character  of  the  institution.  From  this  period 
to  the  close  of  the  century  he  continued  to  preside 
over  it  with  usefulness  and  honour. 

Seminaries  of  learning  began  now  to  multiply  ra^- 
pidly.  From  the  peace  of  1783  to  the  close  of  1800, 


iv  In  furnishing  instances  of  individual  liberality  to  public  institutions) 
it  is  believed  that  Massachusetts  exceeds  all  the  other  States. 


Na (ions  lately  become  Literary.  383 

there  were  seventeen  Colleges  founded  in  the  United 
States,  viz.  two  in  Massachusetts,  one  in  Vermont, 
one  in  New- York,  two  in  Pennsylvania,  four  in 
Maryland,  one  in  North- Carolina,  three  in  South- 
Carolina,  one  in  Georgia,  one  in  Kentucky,  and 
one  in  Tennessee.  Besides  these,  Academies,  dur- 
ing this  period,  were  multiplied  almost  without 
number.  Indeed,  it  may  be  questioned  whether 
seminaries  of  the  higher  order  have  not  been  made 
so  numerous  in  many  parts  of  our  country,  as  to 
produce  effects  directly  the  reverse  of  what  were 
intended.  It  is  as  possible  to  have  too  many  col- 
leges, as  it  is  to  have  too  many  lazvs,  or  too  many 
books. 

The  institution  of  these  academies  was  soon 
followed  by  the  organization  of  a  new  Medical 
School  attached  to  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
in  Massachusetts.  This  event  took  place  in  1783, 
when  the  first  Professors  were  appointed,  and  the 
first  system  of  medical  lectures  delivered  in  that 
Commonwealth.  The  Governors  of  the  University 
were  enabled  to  effect  this  establishment  by  means 
of  several  generous  donations,  made  for  this  par- 
ticular purpose,  by  Dr.  Ezekiel  Hersey,  an  en- 
lightened and  opulent  physician  of  Hingham;  by 
his  widow,  a  few  years  afterwards ;  by  his  brother, 
Dr.  Abner  Hersey,  of  Barnstable;  by  Dr,  John 
Citmming,  of  Concord;  and  by  William  Erving, 
Esq.  of  Boston/  The  several  Professorships  bear 
the  names  of  their  respective  founders;  and  while 
they  exhibit  monuments  of  laudable  beneficence, 

x  Dr.  Ezekiak  Hersey  gave£.  1000  Massachusetts  currency,  to  ba 
applied  to  the  support  of  a  Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Surgery;  his  widow 
a  like  sum,  for  the  same  purpose  ;  his  brother,  Dr.  A.  Hersey,  £.500, 
for  the  encouragement  and  support  of  medical  instruction  ;  Dr.  Cimmixg, 
a  like  sum  to  be  applied  to  the  same  object;  and  William  Ervixg, 
Esq.  £.  1000,  to  be  devoted  to  the  support  of  a  Professorship  of  CkeviLtry 
and  Materia  Medica.  These  several  sums,  amounting  to  between  13000 
and  14000  dollars,  are  funded,  and  their  annual  proceeds  devoted  to  ths 
objects  directed  by  the  donors. 


584  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

have  proved  highly  useful  in  the  diffusion  of  sci- 
ence/ 

In  1783  Mr.  Noah  Webster,  of  Connecticut, 
published  the  first  part  of  his  Grammatical  Insti- 
tute of  the  English  Language?  This  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  two  other  parts  of  the  same  work;  by 
Dissertations  on  the  English  Language,  and  by  seve- 
ral other  publications  from  the  same  pen.  The  in- 
fluence of  this  gentleman  in  promoting  a  taste  for 
philological  inquiries  and  good  writing  among  his 
countrymen;  the  general  introduction  of  his  In- 
stitute into  the  schools  of  America;  and  the  exten- 
sive utility  of  his  learned  labours,  are  well  known, 
and  are  worthy  of  particular  notice  in  tracing  the 
literary  history  of  our  country. 

The  establishment  of  the  Federal  Government, 
in  1789,  may  be  considered  as  the  last  grand  epocha 
in  the  progress  of  knowledge  in  America.  From 
this  period  public  tranquillity  and  confidence  began 
to  rest  on  a  foundation  more  solid  than  before  ; 
wealth  flowed  in  on  every  side;  the  extension  of 
our  intercourse  with  Europe,  the  great  seat  of  ci- 
vilization, refinement  and  literature,  rendered  us 
every  day  more  familiar  with  trans-atlantic  produc- 
tions and  improvements;  and  a  sense  of  national 
dignity  and  independence  becoming  gradually 
more  strong  and  general,  all  conspired  to  furnish 


y  The  author  takes  pleasure  in  acknowledging,  in  this  place,  his  obli- 
gations to  his  friend,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Eliot,  of  Boston,  for  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  information  he  is  able  to  give  respecting  the  literature  of 
Massachusetts.  From  a  mind  so  well  stored  on  the  subject  of  American 
antiquities,  he  might  have  drawn  much  more  ample  materials,  had  appli- 
cation been  made  early  enough  to  admit  of  a  leisurely  attention  to  the  ob- 
ject. 

z  This  work  was  begun  the  autumn  of  1782,  and  published  in  the 
spring  of  1783,  at  Hartford.  The  success  which  has  attended  it,  not- 
withstanding so  many  other  Spelling  Books  and  Grammars  have  solicited, 
public  favour  since  it  appeared,  at  once  does  honour  to  the  Author,  and 
shows,  that  education  is  by  no  means  neglected  in  America.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  1801,  more,  than  one  million  and  an  half  of  copies  of 
this  work  had  been  sold, 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  385 

the  means,  and  to  excite  an  ambition  for  enriching 
our  own  country  with  the  treasures  of  knowledge. 

From  this  time  till  the  end  of  the  century,  literary 
institutions  of  various  kinds  were  multiplied  with 
astonishing  rapidity  in  the  United  States.  Besides 
Colleges,  Academies,  and  subordinate  Schools, 
Scientific  Associations  were  formed;  Libraries  be- 
gan to  be  established  in  the  most  remote  parts  of 
the  country;  Printing  Presses  and  Bookstores  ap- 
peared in  great  numbers  where  they  were  never 
before  known;  Newspapers  became  numerous  to 
a  degree  beyond  all  precedent;  and  the  rewards 
of  literary  labour,  though  still  too  small,  were 
considerably  augmented.  The  establishment  of 
the  Historical  Society  of  Massachusetts,  in  1791; 
of  the  Medical  Schools  of  New-Hampshire  and 
Kentucky,  in  1798;  of  the  Connecticut  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences,  in*  1799;  and  of  the  numerous 
Medical  and  Agricultural  Societies  in  almost  every 
part  of  the  United  States,  within  a  few  years  past, 
deserve  particular  notice,  and  form  interesting 
items  in  the  annals  of  our  literary  progress. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  century  there  were  two 
Colleges  in  the  American  Colonies.  At  the  close 
of  it  there  were  twenty-five ;  from  which  it  may  be 
estimated  that  four  hundred  students  are  annually 
sent  forth,  with  academic  honours.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  century  the  number  of  Academies 
was  small;  and  even  these  were  on  a  comparatively 
narrowr  plan,  and  were  ill  attended  by  students; 
but  at  the  close  of  it,  the  number  of  these  insti- 
tutions had  become  so  great,  in  almost  every  State 
in  the  Union,  especially  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle 
States,  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  form  a  tolera- 
bly correct  estimate  of  their  number.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  century  there  were  but  tzvo 
public  Libraries  in  the  American  Colonies  :  these 
belonged  to  Harvard  College,  and  to  the  Province 

VOL.   II.  3  D 


386  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

of  South-Carolina,  and  were  very  small/  Since 
that  period  the  number  has  increased  to  many' 
hundreds,  and  is  every  year  becoming  still  greater.6 
Private  Libraries  have  also  become  numerous  and 
extensive  in  a  still  more  remarkable  degree. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  period  under  re- 
view, there  were  but  three  ox  four  Printers  in  the 
American  Colonies;  and  these  carried  on  their 
business  upon  a  very  small  scale,  and  in  a  very 
coarse,  inelegant  manner.  But  at  present  the 
number  of  Printers  in  the  United  States  may  be 
considered  as  near  three  hundred;  and  many  of 
these  perform  their  work  with  a  neatness  and  ele- 
gance which  are  rarely  exceeded  in  Europe.  At 
that  time  the  printing  an  original  American  work, 
even  a  small  pamphlet,  was  a  rare  occurrence,  and 
seriously  weighed,  as  an  important  undertaking; 
while  the  reprinting  of  foreign  works  was  seldom 
attempted.  But.  now  at  least  one  hundred  Ameri- 
can works,  some  of  which  are  large  and  respecta- 
ble,'annually  issue  from  our  presses;  and  the  re- 
publication of  foreign  books  is  carried  on  in  almost 
every  part  of  our  country,  and  particularly  in  the 
capital  towns,  with  a  degree  of  enterprize,  and  to 
an  extent  which  would  not  disgrace  some  of  the 
most  cultivated  parts  of  the  European  world. 

Before  the  revolutionary  war  the  Booksellers  m 
the  American  Colonies  were  few,  and  carried  on 
their  business  on  a  contracted  plan.  Since  that 
time  their  number  has  increased  more  than fifty 
fold;  and  the  extent  of  their  annual  sales,  perhaps, 

a  In  the  seventeenth  century,  some  of  the  Congregational  Churches  in 
Massachusetts  began  to  form  Church  Libraries.  These  were  considerably 
numerous  and  useful;  and  some  of  them  remain  till  the  present  day.  The 
use  of  these  Libraries,  however,  was  chiefly  confined  to  the  particular 
congregations  whose  property  they  were. 

b  The  number  of  incorporated  Libraries  in  Massachusetts  is  said  to  b« 
abouc  one  hundred.  The  number  in  the  other  Eastern  States  is  not  known  j 
biK  institutions  of  this  kind  are  far  more  numerous  in  New-England  thai} 
in  any  c.her  part  of  cur  country. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  T>87 

in  a  still  greater  proportion/  Thirty  years  ago,  he 
who  undertook  to  dispose  of  a  moderately  large 
edition,  even  of  a  Spelling-book,  considered  him- 
self as  engaging  in  a  hazardous  cnterprizc.  Ed 
in  1790,  a  single  bookseller  thought  himself  war- 
ranted in  attempting  an  American  edition  of  the 
Encyclopccdia  Britanniea,  in  eighteen  quarto  vo- 
lumes, and  completely  succeeded  in  making  it  a 
profitable  undertaking/  And  since  the  last-men- 
tioned year,  a  number  of  works  extending  to  many 
volumes  have  been  carried  through  American  pres- 
ses, with  great  ease  and  readiness. 

The  first  edition  of  the  Bible  ever  printed  in 
America  was  that  by  the  Rev.  John  Eliot,  the 
celebrated  Apostle  of  the  Indians,  in  the  language 
of  the  Natieks.  This  monument  of  pious  labour 
was  first  printed  at  Cambridge,  in  Massachusetts, 
in  1664,  and  a  second  edition  at  the  same  place 
sixteen  years  afterwards.  From  this  period  till 
near  the  close  of  the  revolutionary  war,  at  so  low 
an  ebb  was  the  book-trade  in  our  country,  that  we 
hear  of  no  attempt  to  print  an  edition  of  the  Bible 
on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  About  the  year  1781, 
Mr.  Robert  Attken,  of  Philadelphia,  undertook 
to  present  the  American  public  with  a  duodecimo 
edition  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  This  laudable 
undertaking  was  executed,  but  with  great  difficul- 
ty, arising  from  the  peculiar  situation  of  the  coun- 
try at  that  time/     But  within  the  last  eighteen  or 

c  In  1802,  the  German  plan  of  disposing  of  books  by  means  of  Literary 
Fairs,  -was  adopted  in  the  United  States.  The  first  Book-fair  was  held  in 
New-York  ;  and  it  is  proposed,  in  future,  to  hold  them  statedly  in  that 
city.  It  is  believed  that  Mr.  Matkew  Carey,  a  well  informed  and 
enterprizing  bookseller  of  Philadelphia,  was  one  of  the  first  who  suggested 
the  propriety  and  utility  of  the  undertaking,  which  has  so  far  happily  suc- 
ceeded, and  bids  fair  to  be  highly  useful,  both  to  the  book-trade  and  to 
the  cause  of  literature. 

d  The  person  here  alluded  to  is  Mr,  Thomas  Doeson,  of  Philadelphia, 
an  intelligent  and  respectable  bookseller,  who  has  probably  contributed  as 
much  as  any  individual  in  his  line  to  the  promotion  of  American  literature. 

e  Immediately  after  the  publication  of  this  edition  of  the  Bible,  pea£$ 


383  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

twenty  years,  undertakings  of  this  kind  have  be- 
come so  numerous  and  so  familiar,  that  the  impor- 
tation of  Bibles  for  the  supply  of  the  American 
market,  though  not  entirely,  has  in  a  great  measure 
ceased.  The  first  quarto  edition  of  the  Bible 
printed  in  the  United  States  was  in  the  year  1791, 
by  Mr.  Isaac  Collins,  then  residing  at  Trenton, 
in  New-Jersey.  In  a  few  months  afterwards,  ano- 
ther quarto  edition  was  published  by  Mr.  Isaiah 
Thomas,  of  Worcester,  in  Massachusetts;  who, 
in  the  same  year,  laid  before  the  public  the  first 
folio  edition  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  that  was  printed 
in  the  United  States.  Since  that  time  several  folio 
editions  of  the  Bible,  and  a  number  of  quarto 
editions,  have  been  printed  in  our  country,  and 
begin  to  be  considered  by  our  printers  and  book- 
sellers as  small  and  easy  undertakings. 

Those  kinds  of  literary  productions  which  have 
been  most  common  and  most  successful  in  the 
United  States,  are  theological  and  political  works, 
and  those  intended  for  the  use  of  schools.  For  the 
first  we  are  indebted  to  that  seriousness  and  taste 
for  religious  inquiry  which  prevails  in  New-Eng- 
land, and  in  a  considerable,  though  less  degree,  in 
the  Middle  and  Southern  States.  The  almost  uni- 
versal taste  for  the  second  class  of  books  we  owe 
to  the  nature  of  our  government,  which  is  emi- 
nently calculated  to  foster,  to  bring  forward,  and 
to  display  political  talents,  and  to  excite  the  at- 
tention of  every  class  of  citizens  to  political  inqui- 
ries. And  the  general  encouragement  given  to 
productions  of  the  last-mentioned  kind  arises  from 
that  disposition  to  attend  to  the  education  of  chil- 
dren, which  has  long   characterized  the  Eastern 


took  place,  when  it  was  soon  found  that  Bibles  could  be  imported  from 
Great -Britain  cheaper  than  it  was  possible  to  print  them  here.  Mr.  Ait- 
kEN,  therefore,  not  obtaining  a  ready  sale  for  his  edition,  which  had  been 
carried  on  with  great  difficulty,  was  nearly  mined  by  the  undertaking, 


Nations  latch)  become  Literary.  389 

States,  and  which,  during  the  last  ten  years  of  the 
century  under  review,  rapidly  extended  itself 
through  every  part  of  the  Union. 

The  School  establishments'  of  New-England,  es* 
pecially  in  the  States  of  Massachusetts  and  Con- 
necticut/ though  they  took  their  rise  in  the  seven* 
teenth  century,  yet  underwent  such  modifications, 
and  received  so  many  improvements  in  the  eigh- 
teenth, that  it  would  be  improper  to  pass  them 
without  notice  in  this  retrospect.^  These  establish- 
ments have  been  carried  to  such  a  degree  of  per- 
fection, that  in  New-England,  and  particularly  in 
the  two  States  above-mentioned,  scarcely  an  indi- 
vidual can  be  found,  of  either  sex,  who  has  not 
been  instructed  in  reading,  writing  and  arithmetic) 
and  who  does  not  habitually  read  more  or  less  in 
newspapers,  and  a  few  of  the  best  books  on  reli- 
gion and  morality.  Attempts  have  been  made  in 
some  of  the  Middle  and  Southern  States  to  adopt 
similar  plans  of  general  education;  but  though 
much  has  been  done,  in  several  of  these  States, 
towards  rendering  the  elements  of  English  litera- 
ture a  boon  within  the  reach  of  all  classes  in  the 
community,  yet,  the  habits  of  the  people  not  be- 
ing so  favourable  to  the  diffusion  of  knowledge, 
and  their  characters  and  manners  being  less  homo- 
geneous, they  have  made  less  progress  towards 
maturing  and  perfecting  their  school  establish- 
ments than  the  Eastern  States. 

/"The  School  system  of  Connecticut  is  generally  considered  the  mosk^er- 
feet  in  the  United  States.  The  parish  Schools  in  that  State  amount  to  at 
ieast  twelve  hundred,  containing,  on  an  average,  forty  Scholars  each,  oir 
forty-eight  thousand  in  the  whole.  Next  to  that  of  Connecticut,  in  point  of 
excellence,  we  may  place  the  School  system  of  Massachusetts.  The  num# 
ber  of  Schools  in  that  State  is  not  known  to  the  Author.  He  presumes, 
however,  that  it  cannot  be  less  than  in  Connecticut. 

g  The  Author  takes  pleasure  in  acknowledging  his  obligation  to  Noah 
Webster,  jun.  Esquire,  for  some  valuable  information  respecting  the 
Jiterature  of  Connecticut  during  the  eighteenth  century;  and  especially 
for  a  more  satisfactory  account  of  the  School  establishments  in  that  Stale 
Jtjian  he  had  before  revived. 


390  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  take  notice  of  some 
of  those  branches  of  science  and  literature  which 
have  been  most  cultivated  in  the  United  States; 
and  also  of  the  names  of  those  who  have  been 
principally  distinguished  by  their  attention  to 
these  objects. 

In  Mathematics,  Astronomy,  and  the  more  ab- 
struse departments  of  Mechanical  Philosophy,  our 
country  has  been  distinguished  to  a  degree  which, 
all  things  considered,  is  highly  honourable  to 
American  genius  and  diligence.  The  names  of 
Greenwood,  Winthrop,  Bowdoin/  Willard, 
Fobes,  and  others  of  Massachusetts;  'of  West,  of 
Rhode-Island;  of  Clap,  and  Mansfield,  of  Con- 
necticut; of  William  Alexander,  commonly 
called  Lord  Stirling,'  of  New-Jersey;  of  God- 
frey,   RlTTENHOUSE,   EwiNG,  WlLLIAMSON,  PaT- 

terson,  and  Ellicott,  of  Pennsylvania ;  and  of 
Madison,  Page,  and  several  more  of  Virginia, 
are  so  well  and  so  respectably  known,  that  it  is 
unnecessary  to  enlarge  on  their  merits/     Besides 

h  James  Bowdoix,  LL.  B.  F.  R.  S.  was  born  in  Eoston,  Massachu- 
setts, August  18,  1727'.  His  father  was  a  native  of  France,  and  fled 
among  the  persecuted  Protestants  of  that  country,  first  to  Ireland,  and  af- 
terwards to  New-England,  where  he  arrived  in  the  year  1688.  His  son 
James,  the  object  of  our  present  attention,  was  educated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege, where  he  received  his  first  degree  in  1745.  After  filling  some  im- 
portant stations  in  public  life,  he  was  chosen  Governor  of  Massachusetts 
in  1785  and  1786.  He  died  in  1790,  greatly  and  generally  respected. 
Those  who  have  perused  the  Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,  will  recollect  the  several  papers  contained  in  them,  which 
manifest  no  common  taste  and  talents  in  astronomical  inquiries. 

i  William  Alexander,  Esq.  was  a  native  of  the  city  of  New-York, 
but  spent  a  considerable  part  of  his  life  in  New-Jersey.  He  was  considered, 
by  many,  as  the  rightful  heir  to  the  title  and  estate  of  an  Earldom  in  Scot- 
land, of  which  country  his  father  was  a  native  ;  and  although  when  he  went 
to  North-Britain  in  pursuit  of  this  inheritance,  he  failed  of  obtaining  an 
acknowledgment  of  his  claim  by  government ;  yet,  among  his  friends  and 
acquaintances,  he  received,  by  courtesy,  the  title  of  Lord  Stirling.  He 
discovered  an  early  fondness  for  the  study  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy  5 
and  attained  great  eminence  in  these  sciences. 

j  The  Author,  in  this  list,  has  only  introduced  the  names  of  such  Ma- 
thematicians, Astronomers,  &,c.  as,  by  means  of  some  publication  or  other 
display  of  their  learning  and  talents,  appeared  to  him  to  have  made  them- 
selves more  than  usually  known.     He  is  sensible  that  a  number  of  tha 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  391 

the  learning  and  talents  of  these  native  citizens, 
Lieutenant-Governor  Colden,  mentioned  in  seve- 
ral former  chapters,  and  Professor  Minio/'  both 
of  North-Britain,  deserve,  among  many  others,  to 
be  mentioned  with  honour,  as  having  contributed 
to  the  cultivation  of  mathematical  and  astronomi- 
cal science  in  our  country. 

Chemical  Philosophy  has  also  been  cultivated  in 
the  United  States  with  a  zeal  and  success  worthy 
of  respectful  notice.  The  first  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  Chemistry  ever  attempted  in  America,  was 
in  the  year  1769,  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  about 
that  time  appointed  Professor  of  this  branch  of 
science  in  the  College  of  Philadelphia. -rTo  Dr. 
Samuel  L.  Mitchill,  of  Xew-York,  the  honour 
is  due  of  having  first  publicly  taught,  in  an  Ame- 
rican Seminary,  the  system  of  Chemistry  digested 
and  published  by  Lavoisier  and  his  associates. 
This  was. in  a  course  of  Lectures  delivered  by  him 
in  Columbia  College,  in  the  year  1792,  as  a  Pro- 
fessor in  that  institution  :  and  his  various  publica- 
tions and  numerous  experiments  on  the  subject, 
from  that  time  to  the  present,  have  doubtless  con- 
tributed to  extend  the  taste  for  chemical  inquiries. 
Dr.  Mitchill  was  soon  followed  by  Dr.  AVood- 
house,  of  Philadelphia,  Dr.  Maclean,  of  Prince- 

Professors  of  these  branches  of  knowledge  in  our  Colleges,  both  native 
citizens  and  foreigners,  scand  high  in  the  estimation  of  all  who  know  them  ; 
and  though  not  brought  so  immediately  before  the  public,  yet  possess,  per- 
haps, a  degree  of  erudition  and  skill,  little,  if  at  all  inferior  to  those  posses- 
sed by  the  persons  above  named 

k  Walter  Minto,  LL.  D.  was  a  native  of  Scotland,  and  received  a 
liberal  education  in  that  country.  Early  in  life  he  visited  Italy,  and  spent 
a  number  of  years  at  Pisa,  pursuing,  with  great  diligence,  his  mathema- 
tical and  astronomical  studies.  Soon  after  the  close  of  the  revolufionary 
war,  he  came  to  America,  and  about  the  year  178/ ,  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  College  cf  Xev-^fenej. 
Jn  this  situation  he  was  respected  and  useful.  He  was,  be)  ond  all  doubt, 
a  great  Mathematician  and  Astronomer,  as  appears  from  his  fiesearcbe* 
into  some  Parts  of  the  Theory  of  the  Planets,  &c.  8vo.  London,  1,  83 ;  and 
also  from  his  Oration  on  the  Progress  and  Importance  of  tie  M~at>jc+)nati*;i: 
Science*,  be.  1788.     He  died  about  the  year :      . 


392  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

ton,  Dr.  Dexter,  of  Cambridge,  and,  in  a  few 
years  afterwards,  by  several  others,  in  different 
parts  of  the  continent.  This  department  of  phy- 
sical science  is  much  more  studied  in  the  Middle 
and  Southern  States  than  in  New-England. 

The  arrival  of  Dr.  Priestley  in  the  United 
States  gave  a  spring  to  the  study  of  Chemistry  on 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  This  celebrated  Philo- 
sopher possesses  an  ardour  and  activity  of  mind, 
which  are  eminently  fitted  to  influence  those  with 
whom  he  has  any  intercourse,  and  to  draw  the 
public  attention  to  the  objects  which  he  pursues. 
And  although  he  still  adheres  to  a  system  of  doc- 
trines which  a  great  majority  of  Chemists  consider 
as  erroneous,  yet  his  numerous  experiments  and 
publications  on  the  subject  since  he  has  resided  in 
the  United  States,  have  contributed  to  excite  a 
spirit  of  inquiry,  and  to  improve  the  public  taste 
for  chemical  philosophy. 

The  votaries  of  Natural  History  in  the  United 
States,  though  not  numerous,  are  respectable,  and 
have  rendered  important  services  to  this  branch  of 
science.  Besides  those  of  this  class  whose  names 
were  mentioned  in  preceding  pages,  a  few  others 
are  entitled  to  particular  notice.  The  Rev.  Dr. 
Cutler,  Mr.  Peck,  and  Dr.  Wateriiouse,  of 
Massachusetts;  Dr.  Mitchill,  of  New- York;  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Muhlenberg,  and  Mr.  Marshall,  of 
Pennsylvania;  and  Mr.  Walter/  of  South-Caro- 
lina, are  all  advantageously  knovvn  by  their  pub- 
lications on  different  branches  of  Natural  History. 
But,  among  the  natural  historians  now  living  in 

/  Thomas  Walter  was  a  native  of  England,  a  man  of  liberal  educa- 
tion, and  much  devoted  to  Botany.  Ke  settled  in  South-Carolina,  a  few 
miles  from  the  city  of  Charleston,  where  he  resided  a  number  of  years  as  a 
planter,  and  where  he  died  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
He  published  his  Flora  Carolir.iana  in  1788.  He  introduced  a  new  species 
of  grass,  from  which  much  was  expected ;  but  it  did  not  stand  the  test  of 
time. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  395 

the  United  States,  Professor  Barton,  of  Phila- 
delphia, undoubtedly  holds  the  first  rank.  His 
various  works  evince  a  closeness  of  observation, 
an  accuracy  of  inquiry,  an  extent  of  learning,  and 
a  vigour  and  comprehensiveness  of  mind,  which 
are  equally  honourable  to  their  possessor,  and  to 
his  country.  Should  his  life  and  health  be  spared, 
he  bids  fair  to  attain  a  place  among  the  most  ac- 
complished scientific  naturalists  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

In  the  science  of  Medicine,  our  country  has  pre- 
sented specimens  of  learning  and  talents  of  the 
most  honourable  kind.  It  may  be  questioned 
whether  this  science  is  cultivated  more  zealously 
or  more  successfully  in  any  part  of  the  world  than 
in  America;  or  whether  any  Medical  School  in 
Europe  furnishes,  on  the  whole,  greater  advantages 
to  the  student  than  that  of  Philadelphia/"  The 
spring  which  was  given  to  the  study  of  medicine 
within  the  last  ten  years  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
in  the  United  States,  deserves  to  be  noticed  as  very- 
remarkable.  This  was  effected,  not  only  by  the 
writings  of  several  distinguished  American  Physi- 
cians, among  whom  Dr.  Rush  holds  the  first  place, 
and  to  whom  Medical  Science  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic  owes  a  large  debt  of  gratitude;  but  also, 
and  perhaps  more  especially,  by  the  unprecedented 
frequency  with  which  our  country  has  been  visited, 
during  this  time,  by  pestilential  diseases,  which 
have  roused  the  attention  and  called  forth  the  ta- 
lents of  our  Physicians,  and  led  to  investigations,  to 

vi  It  is  not  contended,  that  the  advantages  to  be  enjoyed  in  the  medical 
school  at  Philadelphia  are  equal  to  those  furnished  by  the  clinical  lec- 
tures and  practice,  in  the  numerous  and  large  Hospitals  of  London,  and 
the  still  more  numerous  courses  of  Lectures,  delivered  by  private  instruc- 
tors in  that  city.  It  is  only  meant  to  be  asserted,  that  no  regular  medical 
school,  connected  with  any  University  of  Europe,  offers  to  the  student 
better  means  of  medical  instruction  than  those  which  may  be  enjoyed  in 
Philadelphia. 

yOL.   II,  3E 


394  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

an  interchange  of  opinions,  and  to  a  publication 
of  the  results  of  their  inquiries,  which  were  never 
so  general  before. 

In  the  Mechanic  Arts,  so  far  as  respects  the  in- 
genuity of  individuals,  and  the  important  service 
rendered  by  numerous  inventions  and  improve- 
ments, America  yields  to  no  nation  under  heaven. 
Perhaps,  considering  the  amount  of  our  popula- 
tion, and  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  our  people, 
we  have  furnished  even  a  greater  number  of  these 
inventions  and  improvements  than  our  just  propor- 
tion. On  this  subject,  as  it  would  be  difficult  to 
enter  into  details  without  exceeding  all  convenient 
limits;  so  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  number  of 
instances,  abundantly  sufficient  to  support  the  as- 
sertion here  made,  will  readily  occur  to  every 
reader.  The  Quadrant,  by  Godfrey  5  the  Orrery, 
by  Rittenhouse;  the  Machinery  for  manufactur- 
ing Cards,  by  Whittemore;  and  that  for  manu- 
facturing Fire-arms,  by  Whitney,  form  but  a  very 
small  number  of  the  large  list  that  might  be 
presented. 

Of  talents  in  the  Fine  Arts,  America  has  been 
less  productive.  But  we  have  satisfactory  evidence 
that  this  arises  not  so  much  from  the  want  of  native 
genius,  as  from  the  want  of  cultivation  and  en- 
couragement of  the  genius  we  possess.  The  names 
of  West,  Trumbull,  Copely,  and  Stuart,  are 
more  than  sufficient  to  rescue  their  country  from 
any  imputations  of  deficiency  on  this  head, 

When  we  pass  on  to  Theology,  the  noblest  and 
most  important  of  all  sciences,  it  will  be  found, 
that,  on  this  subject,  America  may  claim  high 
distinction.  To  omit  many  names  of  less  note, 
the  theological  writings  of  President  Edwards, 
and  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hopkins,  have  excited  much 
attention  in  the  religious  world.  The  former,  in 
particular,  deserves,  perhaps,  to  be  considered  as 


Nations  lately  become  Liicrarij. 

One  of  the  greatest  divines  that  ever  lived.  Besides 
many  Tracts  of  high  reputation,  on  detached  points 
of  theology,  and  which  have  been  well  received, 
not  only  in  America,  but  also  in  Europe;  a  num- 
ber of  volumes  of  Sermons  have  been  produced  by 
our  countrymen,  which  show,  that  the  eloquence 
of  the  pulpit  is  by  no  means  neglected.  The  first 
volume  of  Sermons  ever  published  in  America, 
that  had  any  just  claim  to  correctness  and  elegance 
of  style,  wras  printed  in  Boston,  in  the  year  1727, 
by  Ebenezer  Pemberton,  pastor  of  a  Church  in 
that  town.  Since  that  time,  the  collections  of 
Sermons,  by  President  Davies,"  Dr.  Lathrop,  Dr. 
Seabury,  President  Smith>  Dr.  Linn,  Dr.  Strong, 
Dr.  Clarke,  Dr.  Emmons,  and  several  others,  of 
different  kinds  and  degrees  of  merit,  have  received 
much  public  approbation.0 

In  the  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind,  the  eigh- 
teenth century  did  not  produce  a  greater  effort  of 
genius,  than  the  Treatise  on  the  Will,  by  President 

ft  Rev.  Samuel  Davies  was  born  In  the  County  of  Newcastle,  in  the 
State  of  Delaware,  November  3,  1724.  He  received  the  greater  part  of 
his  academic  and  theological  education  under  the  care  of  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Samuel  Blair,  of  Fog's  Manor,  in  Pennsylvania,  and  was  licensed  to 
preach  the  gospel,  by  the  Presbytery  of  Newcastle,  about  the  year  1745. 
Soon  after  this  event,  he  travelled  into  Virginia,  where  he  settled  in  the 
rainistry,  in  Hanover  County,  and  remained  there  in  an  extensive  sphere. 
of  usefulness,  and  highly  respected  for  a  number  of  years.  In  1753,  he 
was  chosen  by  the  Synod  of  New-York,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Trustees 
of  New-Jersey  College,  to  accompany  the  Rev.  Gileert  Texxext  on 
a  mission  to  Great-Britain  and  Ireland,  to  solicit  benefactions  for  said 
College.  In  1759,  he  was  elected  to  succeed  Mr.  Edwards  in  the  Presi- 
dency of  that  institution.  In  this  station  he  remained  but  eighteen  months, 
being  removed  by  death  in  January,  KT61,  in  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  his 
age.  The  genius,  taste,  learning,  and  eminent  piety  of  President  Davies, 
have  been  so  much  celebrated,  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  on  them 
here.  His  Sermons,  in  three  volumes,  were  first  published  in  1765.  Then 
uncommon  merit  is  well  known.  They  have  undergone  a  number  of  im- 
pressions. 

o  Besides  the  more  formal  volumes  of  Sermons  above  mentioned,  it 
would  be  easy  to  select  smaller  collections  of  discourses  on  particular  sub- 
jects, which  do  honour  to  the  genius,  learning,  and  taste  of  their  respective 
authors;  and  the  single  Sermons  of  merit  are  much  more  numerous;  but 
it  is  obviously  impossible  to  indulge  such  minute  details,  consistently  with 
the  reouisite  brevity. 


396  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

Edwards.  And  perhaps  it  may  be  asserted,  that 
within  the  last  thirty  years  a  fondness  for  metaphy- 
sical subtleties  and  refined  speculations  has  remark- 
ably characterized  the  theological  publications, 
particularly  in  the  Eastern  States  of  America. 

In  Classic  Literature,  the  United  States  have 
given  birth  to  little  that  can  be  deemed  remarkable. 
The  first  translation  of  a  classic  author  ever  made 
and  published  in  America  was  by  James  Logans 
several  times  before  mentioned,  who,  in  1744, 
published  a  version  of  Cicero's  treatise  De  Senec- 
iute,  with  explanatory  notes,  Since  that  time 
several  works  of  a  similar  kind  have  been  executed 
in  the  United  States.  Among  many  others  who 
might  be  mentioned  as  distinguished  for  their 
classic  learning  and  taste,  it  would  be  improper  to 
omit  the  name  of  Charles  Thomson,  Esq/  late 
Secretary  of  the  American  Congress.  The  erudi- 
tion and  skill  of  this  gentleman,  especially  in  Greek 
literature,  do  honour  to  our  country.  He  has  com- 
pleted a  translation  of  the  Sepluagint  version  of 
the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  and  of  the  Original 
of  the  New  Testament,  which  the  friends  of  Bib- 
lical literature  in  America  hope  soon  to  see  pub- 
lished; and  which,  in  the  opinion  of  good  judges^ 
will  be  a  valuable  acquisition  to  sacred  criticism. 

Of  Oriental  Literature,  the  votaries  in  America 
have  been  few,  and  of  the  fruits  of  their  erudition 
little  has  been  laid  before  the  public.  With  regard^ 
indeed,  both  to  Classic  and  Oriental  literature,  our 
country  has  rather  lost  than  gained  ground  within 
the  last  hundred  years.  For  though  a  greater  num- 
ber of  persons  now  gain  a  smattering  of  classic  lite- 
rature than  at  the  beginning  of  the  century;  yet  of 

p  This  gentleman  received  the  rudiments  of  his  education  at  the  Aca- 
demy of  Dr.  Francis  Allison,  before  mentioned,  where  he  was  asso- 
ciated in  study  with  Dr.  Ewing,  Governor  M'Kean,  and  a  number  of 
€>ther  Americans  of  literary  distinction. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary,  39^ 

those  who  pay  attention  to  this  study,  much  fewer 
are  deeply  and  thoroughly  instructed.  And  with 
respect  to  Oriental  learning,  those  who  have  any 
tolerable  acquaintance  with  it  in  the  United  States 
are  rare  indeed.  To  the  names  of  those  Amerxans 
mentioned  in  former  parts  of  this  work,  who  were 
distinguished  by  their  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew 
language,  that  of  the  Rev.  JDr.  S  tiles,  President  of 
Yale  College,  may  be  added.  At  the  time  of  his 
death,  he  probably  left  no  superior  among  his 
countrymen  in  this  branch  of  literature.7 

It  has  been  asserted,  and  probably  with  truth, 
that  in  Political  science,  and  in  Parliamentary  eld- 
cjuence,  the  United  States  will  bear  a  very  honour- 
able comparison  with  any  nation.  Besides  the 
eminent  political  writers  mentioned  in  a  former 
page,  the  names  of  Adams,  Hamilton,  Madison, 
Jay,  and  several  other  native  citizens,  are  known 
and  celebrated  in  Europe.  In  addition  to  these^ 
many  Counsellors  and  Juridical  characters  might 
be  enumerated,  w7ho  not  only  hold  a  high  station 
among:  ourselves,  but  who  would  also  be  considered 
as  ornaments  of  the  bar  and  the  bench,  in  the  most 
enlightened  countries  of  Europe. 

The  Historians   of  America  were  enumerated 


q  Ezra  Stiles,  D.  D.  and  LL.  D.  was  born  at  North-Haven,  in 
Connecticut,  December  10,  1727.  He  was  educated  at  Yale  College, 
where  he  received  the  degree  of  A.  B.  in  the  year  1T46.  He  was  ordained 
to  the  work  of  the  Gospel  ministry,  and  installed  Pastor  of  a  Church  at 
Newport,  Rhode-Island,  in  1755;  and  was  chosen  President  of  the  Col- 
lege at  which  he  had  received  his  education  in  1777 ;  in  which  important 
office  he  continued  till  his  death,  in  1795.  Dr.  Si  ii.es  was  one  of  the 
most  learned  men  that  our  country  ever  produced.  He  had  a  great  amount 
of  general  knowledge,  but  he  was  particularly  attached  to  Oriental  litera- 
ture. Besides  an  acquaintance  with  the  Hebrew  language  more  than 
commonly  extensive  and  profound,  very  few  on  this  side  of  "he  Atlantic 
ever  made  so  great  progress  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Arabic,  Cbaldakr, 
Syriac,  and  Samaritan  dialects ;  and  on  the  Persic  and  Coptic  he  had  be- 
stowed some  attention.  He  corresponded  with  learned  Rabbis  in  the 
Hebrew  language,  and  revived  the  study  of  it  in  the  College  over  which 
he  presided.  For  upwards  of  thirty  years  he  held  a  distinguished  place 
among  the  active  friends  and  promoters  of  literature  in  the  United  States, 


398  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

in  a  former  chapter,  and  some  references  made  to 
their  respective  merits.''  None  of  them,  indeed* 
can  boast  of  having  attained  that  elaborate  polish, 
and  that  exquisite  felicity  of  manner  which  dis- 
tinguish the  first  class  of  English  historians.  But 
the  most  of  them  are  respectable  writers ;  and 
several  have  acquitted  themselves  in  a  manner 
which  does  credit  to  their  taste  in  composition,  as 
well  as  to  their  fidelity  in  collecting  and  commu- 
nicating information/ 

The  respectable  Poets  of  America  are  not  nume- 
rous. The  most  conspicuous  of  these  were  noticed 
in  a  preceding  division  of  this  work/  It  is  not 
necessary  here  to  repeat  their  names,  or  to  attempt 
a  comparative  estimate  of  their  merits.  Their 
number  is  gradually  increasing;1*  and  when  that 
leisure  and  encouragement  shall  be  afforded  to 
men  of  genius  in  this  country,  which  are  enjoyed 
in  many  parts  of  Europe,  we  may  expect  to  pro- 
duce Poets,  who  shall  vie  with  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  old  world. 

But  in  no  respect  does  the  literary  enterprize  of 
America  appear  more  conspicuous  than  in  the  ra- 
pid increase  of  the  number  and  circulation  of  News- 
papers, within  the  last  thirty  years.  The  ratio  and 
amount  of  this  increase  were    stated  in  another 


r  See  page  140,  &c.  of  the  present  volume. 

*  Histories  of  different  American  States  have  been  promised  by  several 
■writers.  The  public,  particularly,  look  forward  with  high  expectation 
to  the  appearance  of  The  History  of  North-Carolina,  which  has  been  for 
some  time  prepared  by  Dr.  Hugh  Williamson,  whose  talents  and  learn- 
ing are  a  pledge  that  it  will  prove  an  interesting  and  instructive  work. 

t  See  pages  230  and  231  of  this  volume. 

i)  Since  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century*,  another  writer  has  appeared, 
who,  if  we  may  judge  by  his  first  production,  is  destined  to  hold  a  high 
place  in  the  catalogue  of  native  Poets  of  America.  This  writer  is  the  Rev. 
John  B.  Linn,  D.D.  of  Philadelphia,  whose  Powers  of  Genius,  a  didactic 
and  descriptive  Poem,  published  in  1801,  displays  imagination,  taste,  a.nd 
reading.  This  Poem  was  so  favourably  received,  that  a  second  edition 
v/as  called  for  in  less  than  a  year,  into  which  the  Author  has  introduced 
large  and  valuable  improvements. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  399 

place."  In  this  respect  we  go  beyond  every  other 
nation.  It  were  well  if  these  vehicles  of  infor- 
mation had  improved  as  much  in  purity,  intelli- 
gence, and  instructiveness,  as  in  other  respects; 
but  the  blindest  partiality  for  American  literature 
must  perceive  and  lament  the  sad  reverse ! 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  attempt,  in  a  few 
sentences,  a  comparative  estimate  of  the  extent 
to  which  different  branches  of  knowledge  are  cul- 
tivated in  different  parts  of  the  United  States. 

That  amount  of  knowledge  which  is  usually  ac- 
quired at  common  schools,  viz.  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic,  is  more  generally  diffused  among 
all  classes  of  the  people  in  New-England,  and  par- 
ticularly in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  than 
in  any  other  portion  of  our  country,  and  indeed 
than  in  any  other  part  of  the  globe.  This  maybe 
ascribed  to  the  superior  excellence  of  their  School 
establishments ;  to  the  number,  piety,  and  dili- 
gence of  the  Clergy;  to  the  regular  organization 
of  their  towns  and  parishes;  to  the  honourable 
point  of  light  in  which  the  instructors  of  youth  are 
considered  f  and  to  the  general  spirit  of  activity 
and  enterprize  which  must  be  admitted  to  enter 
into  the  national  character  of  New-England. 

It  may  also  be  observed,  as  another  circum- 
stance of  discrimination,  that  in  the  Eastern  States 
a  larger  portion  of  the  youth  pass  through  a  regu- 
lar collegiate  course  of  education,  than  in  any  other 

u  See  pages  250  and  251  of  the  present  volume. 

iv  This  circumstance  has  a  most  benign  influence  in  New-England.  In 
the  Middle,  but  more  especially  in  the  Southern  States,  the  employment 
of  a  Schoolmaster  is  considered  by  many  as  rather  degrading,  and  has 
sometimes  been  used  as  a  ground  of  reproach.  The  consequence  is,  that 
too  many  of  the  instructors  of  youth  in  these  States  are  ignorant  and  vi- 
cious  adventurers;  these  who  are  well  qualified  rather  shunning  an 
office  to  which  so  little  respect  is  attached.  In  the  New-England  States  it 
is  otherwise.  Some  of  their  greatest  Divines  and  Statesmen  were  School- 
masters in  early  life.  The  employment  is  considered  and  treated  as  an 
honourable  one.  The  consequence  is,  that  the  common  parish  schools 
are  generally  under  the  care  of  well  informed  and  virtuous  men. 


400  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

part  of  our  country.  In  New-England,  the  mass 
of  the  people  are  more  generally  taught  to  respect 
literature,  and  to  make  exertions  for  conferring 
this  advantage  on  their  children.  In  that  part  of 
the  Union  also,  the  expense  attending  an  Acade- 
mic course  is  rather  less  than  in  most  of  the  other 
American  Seminaries.  These  two  circumstances 
have  a  natural  tendency  to  fill  their  Colleges  with 
a  greater  number  of  Students  than  are  to  be  found 
elsewhere. 

The  Classic  Literature  of  the  United  States,  as 
was  before  remarked,  is  almost  every  where  super- 
ficial. It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  learned 
languages,  and  especially  the  Greek  language,  are 
rather  less  studied  in  the  Eastern  than  in  the 
Middle  and  Southern  States.  It  is  true,  many 
more  individuals  attend  to  this  branch  of  learning 
in  the  former  than  in  the  latter;  but  they  read  fewer 
books,  and  devote  a  less  portion  of  time  to  the  ob- 
ject/ For  this  fact,  many  reasons  might  be  as- 
signed ;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  mention  more 
than  two.  The  one  is,  that,  owing  to  the  superior 
wealth  enjoyed  by  a  number  of  individuals  in  the 
Middle  and  Southern  States,  it  w^as  more  common, 
during  a  great  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
to  send  young  men  to  Europe  for  their  educa- 
tion from  those  States,  than  from  New-England. 
The  youth,  thus  educated,  might  be  expected,  of 
course,  to  bring  back  with  them  to  their  native 
country,  a  larger  portion  of  classic  literature  than 
could  be  easily  acquired  in  American  seminaries. 
Another  reason  is,  that,  wmile  almost  all  the  in- 
structors of  youth  in  New-England,  and  especially 

x  The  Author  is  aware,  that  in  tracing  the  literary  history  of  New- 
England,  the  names  of  some  classical  Scholars  of  great  eminence  arc 
found.  He  means,  however,  only  to  speak  of  the  degree  of  attention 
generally  paid  to  Classic  literature,  by  those  who  go  through  a  colle- 
giate course  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  especially  within  the  last  twenty 
or  thirty  years. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  401 

(he  higher  classes  of  them,  during  the  last  hundred 
years,  have  been  natives;  a  large  portion  of  the 
Superintendents  of  Academies,  and  of  the  Presi- 
dents and  Professors  of  Colleges,  in  the  Middle  and 
Southern  parts  of  our  country,  during  the  same 
period,  were  Europeans,  and  many  of  them  emi- 
nently accomplished  in  classic  literature.  If,  there- 
fore, the  knowledge  in  this  branch  of  learning, 
acquired  in  the  best  seminaries  of  Europe,  were 
usually  more  accurate  and  profound  than  could 
ordinarily  be  obtained  from  our  native  citizens,  it 
must  follow  of  course,  that  those  who  derived  their 
classical  learning  from  the  former  of  these  sources, 
were,  in  general,  more  thoroughly  instructed 
themselves,  and  consequently  more  capable  of 
instructing  others,  than  those  who  had  access  only 
to  the  latter. 

In  the  study  of  Oriental  Literature,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  New-England  has  generally  excelled 
the  Middle  and  Southern  States.  Certain  it  is, 
that  we  hear  of  more  eminent  Orientalists  in  the 
former  than  in  the  latter;  if  we  except  a  kw  fo- 
reigners occasionally  residing  among  us.  This  we 
may  ascribe  to  the  great  Oriental  learning  of  seve- 
ral of  those  distinguished  divines  who  came  with 
the  first  settlers  to  New-England,  or  who  soon  af- 
terwards followed  them  thither.  The  influence  o£ 
these  men  has  continued,  in  a  degree,  to  the  pre- 
sent day.  To  this  circumstance  it  may  be  added, 
that  the  University  of  Cambridge,  in  Massachu- 
setts, is  the  only  seminary  of  learning  in  the  United 
States  in  which  a  Professorship  for  instruction  iri 
the  Oriental  languages  has  been  steadily  main- 
tained through  the  whole  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

In  the  cultivation  of  Mathematics  and  Natural 
Philosophy,  it  is  difficult  to  say  to  what  part  of  our 
country  the  preference  ought  to  be  given,     Pro? 

VOL,    II,  ?f 


402  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

bably  an  impartial  judge,  taking  the  whole  his-* 
tory  of  the  country  together,  would  give  the  palm, 
in  this  respect,  to  Pennsylvania  and  Massachusetts. 
The  Sciences  of  Chemistry,   Natural  History^ 
and  Medicine,,  have    long  been,  and  continue  to 
be,   more   successfully  cultivated  in  the  Middle 
and  Southern  than  in  the  Eastern  States.     The 
same  reasons  apply  in  this  ease  that  were  suggested 
with  respect  to  Classic  literature.    Comparatively, 
few  young  men   have  been  sent,  at  any  period, 
from  the  Eastern  States  to  European  seminaries  to 
complete   their  medical  education.     Besides  this 
consideration,  foreigners,  even  of  literary  and  sci- 
entific character,  have  received  less   encourage- 
ment to  settle  in  those  States  than  in  most  other 
parts  of  the  Union.     On  the  other  hand,  from  the 
Middle  and  Southern  States  a  number  of  young 
men  have  been,  every  year,  sent  to  the  Medical 
Schools  of  Europe,  who  not  only  attended  the  or^ 
dinary  courses  of  instruction  in  Medicine,  strictly 
so  called,  but  also  the  Lectures  delivered  on  Che- 
mistry and  Natural  History,  as   important  auxili? 
ary  branches  of  Philosophy.     It  is  further  to  be 
observed,  that   several    learned   and   enterprizing 
foreigners,  who  visited  and  resided  for  some  time 
in  New- York,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  South- 
Carolina,  devoted  much  of  their  time  and  atten^ 
tion  to  Natural  History  f.  excited  some  of  the  nar 
live  citizens,  in  their  respective  neighbourhoods, 
to  engage  in  this  study  f  and  thus  introduced  that 

y  There  is  a  particular  reference  here  to  Catesby,  Garden-,  ancj 
Walter,  who  resided  in  South-Carolina;  to  Mitchell,  who  spent  a 
number  of  years  in  Virginia;  to  Professor  Kalm,  who  devoted  several 
years  to  travelling  in  the  Middle  States;  to  Schoepf  and  Wangen- 
heim,  who  came  to  America  with  the  German  troops,  during  the  Revo- 
lutionary war ;  to  whom  may  be  added,  Dr.  Colden  and  Dr.  Muhlen- 
berg, whose  talents  and  zeal  in  the  study  of  Botany  have  been  before  re- 
peatedly mentioned. 

z  It  was  probably  owing  to  the  conversation  and  influence  of  these, 
*r  of  soms  other  foreigner*  visiting  the  country,  that  Clayton,  Starke^ 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  40$ 

taste  for  inquiries  of  this  nature  which  has  ever 
since  existed*  in  a  greater  or  Jess  degree,  in  some 
individuals  in  those  States. 

New-England  has  given  birth  to  the  greatest 
number,  and  the  most  eminent  of  the  native  Theo- 
logical writers  of  America.  And  there  is  no  doubt 
that  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  the  Sermons  printed 
in  the  United  States,  whether  in  volumes  or  single 
discourses,  is  produced  in  that  part  of  our  coun- 
try. It  may  also  be  asserted,  that  almost  all  the 
valuable  disquisitions  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  hu- 
man mind,  which  have  been  published  on  this  side 
of  the  Atlantic,  were  written  in  New-England. 

In  the  literature  and  science  of  Politics,  it  is  not 
easy  to  say  which  part  of  our  country  is  most  en- 
titled to  credit.  If  we  pronounce  in  favour  of 
those  States,  which  have  produced  the  greatest 
number  of  eminent  political  writers,  we  must  give 
the  first  honours  to  Massachusetts,  New- York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia.  But  there  is  no  sub- 
ject more  generally  studied,  in  every  State  in  the 
Union,  than  Political  science  ;  none  on  which  our 
literary  men  so  frequently  write;  and,  of  course, 
none  which  so  constantly  calls  forth  the  exertion 

of  talents. 

Of  Historical  composition,  the  Eastern  States 
have  produced  their  full  proportion,  and  rather 
more.  Of  respectable  Poets,  they  have  given  birth 
to  a  greater  number  than  any  other  proportional 
division  of  the  Union.  And  in  Belles  Lettres  ge- 
nerally, there  is,  without  doubt,  more  cultivation 
in  New-England  than  in  any  other  part  of  our 
•country;  if  we  except  the  larger  cities  in  the 
Middle  and  Southern  States. 

With  respect  to  the  Mechanic  Arts,  New-Eng- 
land has  furnished  her  full  proportion  of  those  in- 

Cary,  andGREENWAY,  of  Virginia;  and  the  Bartrams,  Marshall, 
fend  others,  of  Pennsylvania,  were  so  much  devoted  to  botamcal  pursvute. 


404-  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

ventions  and  improvements  which  do  honour  to* 
American  genius.  And  with  regard  to  the  Fine 
Arts,  three  out  of  four  of  our  greatest  native 
Painters  were  born  in  that  division  of  the  country. 

It  must,  however,  after  all,  be  acknowledged* 
{hat  what  is  called  a  liberal  education  in  the  United 
States,  is,  in  common,  less  accurate  and  complete; 
the  erudition  of  our  native  citizens,  with  some  ex- 
ceptionSj  less  extensive  and  profound  ;  and  the 
works  published  by  American  Authors,  in  general, 
less  learned,  instructive*  and  elegant/  than  are 
found  in  Great-Britain,  and  some  of  the  moreen- 
lightened  nations  on  the  Eastern  continent.  These 
facts,  it  is  apprehended,  arise  not  from  any  defici- 
ency of  talents  in  our  country,  nor  from  any  inap- 
titude in  its  soil  or  atmosphere  to  promote  the 
growth  of  genius;  but  from  one  or  another,  and, 
in  some  cases,  from  a  combination  of  the  follow- 
ing causes. 

1 .  Defective  plans  and  means  of  instruction  hi 
our  Seminaries  of  learning.  The  great  majority 
of  our  Colleges  have  very  inadequate  funds.  The 
consequence  is,  that  in  most  of  them  the  Professors 
are  few  in  n amber,  and  have  assigned  to  them  too 
large  a  field  of  instruction.  Hence  they  can  con- 
vey but  very  superficial  knowledge  of  the  various 
branches  which  it  is  made  their  duty  to  teach,  and 
if  well  qualified  themselves,  which  is  far  from  be- 
ing always  the  case,  find  it  impossible  to  do  justice 
to  the  pupils.  In  some  instances,  also,  the  Trus- 
tees or  Governors  of  American  Colleges,  either 
from  their  own  ignorance,  or  in  compliance  with 
popular  prejudice,  have  so  contracted  the  time  re- 


a  It  is  not  meant  to  be  denied  that  a  few  of  the  works  published  in 
America  are  as  profound  and  instructive  as  any  on  similar  subjects 
published  elsewhere.  It  is  simply  intended  to  give  a  general  character  of 
American  publications,  liable  to  such  exceptions  as  the  mind  of  the  well' 
informed  reader  will  readily  supply. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  405 

Cmisite  for  completing  a  course  of  instruction,  as 
to  render  it  necessary  wholly  to  dispense  with,  or 
lightly  to  hurry  over,  some  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  knowledge.  Accordingly,  in  some  of 
these  institutions,  Mathematical  Science  is  unpo- 
pular, and  the  acquisition  of  as  little  as  possible 
especially  of  the  higher  branches  of  it,  enjoined  on 
the  student.  In  others,  Classic  literature,  and  es- 
pecially the  Greek  language,6  is  in  low  estimation, 
and  not  more  studied  than  is  indispensibly  neces- 
sary to  obtaining  a  diploma.  If  well  bred  scho- 
lars ever  issue  from  such  Seminaries,  they  must  be 
formed  by  a  degree  of  private  and  individual  ap- 
plication rarely  to  be  met  with  in  youth. 

2.  Want  of  Leisure.  The  comparatively  equal 
distribution  of  property  in  America,  while  it  pro- 
duces the  most  benign  political  and  moral  effects, 
is  by  no  means  friendly  to  great  acquisitions  in 
literature  and  science.  In  such  a  state  of  Society, 
there  can  be  few  persons  of  leisure.  It  is  neces- 
sary that  almost  all  should  be  engaged  in  some 
active  pursuit.  Accordingly,  in  the  United  States, 
the  greater  number  of  those  who  pass  through  a 
course  of  what  is  called  liberal  education,  in  the 
hurried  manner  wThich  has  been  mentioned,  en- 
gage, immediately  after  leaving  College,  in  the 
study  or  business  to  which  they  propose  to  devote 
themselves.  Having  run  over  the  preliminary  steps 
of  instruction  in  this  business,  probably  in  a  man- 
ner no  less  hurried  and  superficial  than  their  acade- 
mic studies,  they  instantly  commence  its  practical 
pursuit;  and  are,  perhaps,  during  the  remainder  of 
life,  consigned  to  a  daily  toil  for  support,  which 
precludes  them  from  reading,  and  especially  from 
gaining  much  knowledge  out  of  their  particular 

b  In  some  American  Colleges,  we  are  told  that  no  more  knowledge  of 
Greek  is  required  in  those  who  graduate  Bachelor  of  Arts,  than  that  which 
fciav  be  derived  from  the  Grammar  and  the  Greek  Testament. 


406  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

profession.  Such  is  the  career  of  ninety-nine  our 
of  an  hundred  of  those  in  our  country  who  belong 
to  the  learned  professions.  When  the  alternative 
either  lies,  6x  is  supposed  to  lie  between  erudition 
and  poverty,  or  comfortable  affluence  and  mode- 
rate learning,  it  is  not  difficult  to  conjecture  which 
side  will  be  chosen;  nor  is  it  suprizing  that,  in  such 
a  state  of  things,  there  should  be  less  profound 
erudition,  less  elegant  accomplishment  in  litera- 
ture, than  where  a  considerable  number  enjoy  all 
the  advantages  of  exemption  from  laborious  duties* 
and  all  the  accommodations  of  opulent  leisure; 

To  this  circumstance  may  be  ascribed  the  su- 
perficial and  unpolished  character  of  many  of  our 
native  publications.  All  that  their  authors,  in 
many  cases,  want,  to  render  them  more  replete 
with  instruction,  more  attractive  in  manner,  and, 
of  course,  more  worthy  of  public  approbation,  is 
leisure.  But,  able  only  to  redeem  a  few  hasty  hours 
for  literary  pursuits,  from  the  employments  which 
give  them  bread,  they  must  necessarily,  if  they 
publish  at  all,  send  forth  productions,  from  time  to 
time,  bearing  all  the  marks  of  haste  and  immature 
reflection. 

3.  Want  of  encouragement  to  learning.  Men 
cannot  be  expected  to  labour  without  the  hope  of 
some  adequate  reward.  Genius  must  be  nourished 
by  patronage,  as  well  as  strengthened  by  culture. 
Where  substantial  emoluments  may  be  derived 
from  literary  exertion,  there,  and  there  alone,  will 
it  be  frequently  undertaken  to  any  considerable 
extent.  Hence,  in  those  countries  where  genius 
and  learning  are  best  rewarded*  there  they  are 
ever  found  to  be  most  cultivated.  In  the  United 
States,  the  rewards  of  literature  are  small  and 
uncertain.  The  people  cannot  afford  to  remunerate 
eminent  talents  or  great  acquirements.  Booksel- 
lers, the  great  patrons  of  learning  in  modern  times> 


Nations  lately  become  Literary,  407 

fire  in  America  too  poor  to  foster  and  reward  the 
efforts  of  genius.  There  are  no  rich  Fellowships  in 
our  Universities  to  excite  the  ambition  of  students; 
no  large  ecclesiastical  benefices  to  animate  the  ex- 
ertions of  literary  divines/  Academic  chairs  are 
usually  connected  with  such  small  salaries,  that 
they  present  little  temptation  to  the  scholar;  and, 
finally,  the  State  offers  very  inconsiderable  motives 
for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  and  the  exertion 
of  talents.  Its  rewards  are  small,  and  its  favour 
capricious.  Can  it  be  wondered,  then,  that  those 
who  have  some  acquaintance  with  books,  and  hold 
important  stations,  are  more  anxious  to  secure  per 
cuniary  advantages,  and  to  place  themselves  in  a 
situation  independent  of  popular  favour,  than  to 
make  advances  in  literature,  or  to  do  honour  to 
their  country  by  the  display  of  intellectual  pre- 
eminence? 

Besides,  the  spirit  of  our  people  is  commercial. 
It  has  been  said,  and  perhaps  with  some  justice, 
that  the  love  of  gain  peculiarly  characterizes  the 
inhabitants  of  the  United  States.  The  tendency 
of  this  spirit  to  discourage  literature  is  obvious. 
In  such  a  state  of  Society,  men  will  not  only  be 
apt  to  bend  their  whole  attention  to  the  acquire- 
ment of  property,  and  neglect  the  cultivation  of 
their  minds  as  an  affair  of  secondary  moment ;  but 
letters  and  science  will  seldom  be  found  in  high 
estimation  ;  the  amount  of  wealth  will  be  the  prinr 
cipal  test  of  influence  ;  the  learned  will  experience 
but  little  reward  either  of  honour  or  emolument; 
and,  of  course,  superficial  education  will  be  the 
prevailing  character, 

c  The  Author  would  by  no  means  be  understood  to  express  an  opinion 
that  such  immoderately  lucrative  places,  either  in  Church  or  in  State,  are' 
on  the  whole,  useful,  or  desirable.  He  is  persuaded  that  they  are  much  more 
productive  of  mischief  than  of  advantage.  But  that  they  often  excite  lite- 
Irary  ambition,  and  afford,  in  many  instances,  convenient  and  useful 
leisure  to  literary  characters,  will  scarcely  fee  questioned  by  those  who  h*ye 
paid  any  attention  to  the  subject, 


403  Nations  lately  become  Literary. 

Nor  is  it  of  less  importance  here  to  recollecr, 
that  the  nature  of  our  connection  with  Great- 
Britain  has  operated,  and  continues  to  operate  un-> 
favourably  to  the  progress  of  American  literature. 
Long  accustomed  to  a  state  of  colonial  depend- 
ence on  that  enlightened  and  cultivated  Nation, 
we  have  also  been  accustomed  to  derive  from  her 
the  supplies  for  our  literary  wants,  And  still  con- 
nected with  her  by  the  ties  Gf  language,  manners, 
taste,  and  commercial  intercourse,  her  literature, 
science  and  arts  may  be  considered  as  ours.  Being 
able,  therefore,  with  so  much  ease,  to  reap  the 
fruits  of  her  fields,  we  have  not  sufficient  induce- 
ment to  cultivate  our  own.  And  even  when  an 
excellent  production  of  the  American  soil  is  offered 
to  the  public,  it  is  generally  undervalued  and  neg- 
lected. A  large  portion  offc  our  citizens  seem  to 
entertain  the  idea,  that  nothing  worthy  of  patron- 
age can  be  produced  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 
Instead  of  being  prompted  to  a  more  liberal  en- 
couragement of  genius  because  it  is  American, 
their  prejudices,  on  this  account,  are  rather  exr 
cited  against  it/ 

4.  Want  of  Books.  In  the  capital  cities  of  Eu- 
rope, the  votary  of  literature  is  surrounded  with 
immense  Libraries,  to  which  he  may  easily  obtain 
access ;  and  even  in  many  of  the  smaller  towns, 
books  on  any  subject,  and  to  almost  any  number, 
may  be  easily  obtained.  It  is  otherwise  in  Ame- 
rica.    Here   the    student,  in  addition   to  all  the 


d  The  writer  in  the  Monthly  Magazine,  whose  strictures  on  American 
literature  were  before  mentioned,  represents  the  inhabitants  of  the 
United  States  as  having  strong  prejudices  in  favour  of  their  own  produc- 
tions, and  ridicules  them  for  preferring  American  publications  to  all  others. 
In  this,  as  well  as  in  most  of  his  assertions,  he  discovers  profound  igno- 
rance of  the  subject.  The  fact  is  directly  the  reverse.  Americans  are  too 
apt  to  join  with  ignorant  or  fastidious  foreigners,  in  undervaluing  and  de» 
crying  our  domestic  literature  ;  and  this  circumstance  is  one  of  the  nume- 
rous obstacles  which  have  operated  to  discourage  literary  exertions  on  this 
eide  of  tke  Adantic,  and  to  impede  our  literary  progress. 


Nations  lately  become  Literary.  409 

other  obstacles  which  lie  in  his  way,  has  often  to 
spend  as  much  time  and  thought  to  obtain  a  parti- 
cular book,  as  the  reading  it  ten  times  would  cost. 
Our  public  Libraries  are  few,  and,  compared  with 
those  of  Europe,  small.  Nor  is  this  defect  sup- 
plied by  large  private  collections ;  these  are  also 
rare.  And  to  render  the  evil  still  more  grievous, 
the  number  of  literary  and  enterprizing  booksel- 
lers is  yet  smaller.  It  is  only  within  two  or  three 
years  that  we  have  begun  to  receive,  with  any  kind 
of  regularity  or  promptitude,  the  best  British 
works  as  they  issue  from  the  press. 

Such  are  some  of  the  causes  which  have  hitherto 
impeded  the  progress  of  American  Literature. 
Their  influence,  however,  is  gradually  declining, 
and  the  literary  prospects  of  our  country  are  bright- 
ening every  day.  Letters  and  science  are  becom- 
ing more  important  in  the  public  estimation, 
The  number  of  learned  men  is  becoming  rapidly 
greater.  The  plans  and  means  of  instruction  in. 
our  Seminaries  of  learning,  though  by  no  means 
improving  in  all  respects,  are,  in  some,  receiving 
constant  melioration.  The  emulation  of  founding; 
and  sustaining  a  national  character  in  science  and 
learning  begins  to  be  more  generally  fdt,  and? 
from  time  to  time,  will  doubtless  be  augmented! 
A  larger  proportion  of  the  growing  wealth  of  our 
country  will  hereafter  be  devoted  to  the  improve- 
ments of  knowledge,  and  especially  to  the  fur- 
therance of  all  the  means  by  which  scientific  dis- 
coveries are  brought  within  popular  reach,  and 
rendered  subservient  to  practical  utility.  Ameri- 
can publications  are  every  day  growing  more  nu- 
merous, and  rising  in  respectability  of  character. 
Public  and  private  Libraries  are  becoming  more 
numerous  and  extensive.  The  taste  in  composition 
among  our  writers  is  making  very  sensible  progress 
in  correctness  and  refinement.     American  authors 

YOL.  II.  3  G 


410  He  capitulation. 

of  merit  meet  with  more  liberal  encouragement  $ 
and  when  the  time  shall  arrive  that  we  can  give 
to  our  votaries  of  literature  the  same  leisure,  and 
the  same  stimulants  to  exertion  with  which  they 
are  favoured  in  Europe,  it  may  be  confidently 
predicted,  that  letters  will  flourish  as  much  in 
America  as  in  any  part  of  the  world ;  and  that  wTe 
shall  be  able  to  make  some  return  to  our  trans- 
atlantic brethren,  for  the  rich  stores  of  useful 
knowledge  which  they  have  been  pouring  upon  us 
for  nearly  two  centuries. 


RECAPITULATION, 


WE  have  now  made  a  hasty  tour  through  one  of 
the  departments  of  the  subject  which  we  under- 
took to  examine.  From  the  foregoing  survey, 
which,  however  tedious  it  may  have  appeared  to 
the  reader,  is,  in  reality,  a  very  rapid  one,  the 
eighteenth  century  appears  to  bear  a  singularly 
distinct  and  interesting  character.  In  almost  every 
department  of  knowledge,  wTe  find  monuments  of 
enterprize,  discovery,  and  improvement;  and,  in 
some,  these  monuments  are  so  numerous,  valuable, 
and  splendid,  as  to  stand  without  parallel  in  the 
history  of  the  human  mind.  There  have  been 
periods  in  which  particular  studies  were  more  cul- 
tivated ;  but  it  may  be  asserted,  with  confidence, 
that  in  no  period  of  the  same  extent,  since  the 
creation,  has  a  mass  of  improvement  so  large, 
diversified  and  rich  been  presented  to  view.  In 
no  period  have  the  various  branches  of  science, 
art 'and  letters,  received,  at  the  same  time,  such 
liberal  accessions  of  light  and  refinement,  and  been 
.jr.ade  so  remarkably  to  illustrate  and  enlarge  eac]i 


Bee  aplt  ulation.  4 1 1 

other.  Never  did  the  inquirer  stand  at  the  con- 
fluence of  so  many  streams  of  knowledge  as  at  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

But,  in  order  to  bring  more  immediately  and 
disinctly  into  view  the  leading  characteristics  of 
the  last  age,  as  deducible  from  the  statements 
which  have  been  given,  an  attempt  will  be  made 
to  sum  them  up  in  the  few  following  particulars: 

1.  The  last  century  was  pre-eminently  an  age 
of  free  inquiry.  No  period  in  the  history  of  man 
is  so  well  entitled  to  this  character.  Two  centuries 
have  not  rolled  away, since  the  belief  that  the  earth 
is  globular  in  its  form  was  punished  as  a  damnable 
heresy  ;  since  men  were  afraid  to  avow  the  plainest 
and  most  fundamental  principles  of  philosophy, 
government,  and  religion;  and  since  the  spirit  of 
liberal  inquiry  was  almost  unknown.  In  the  se- 
venteenth century,  this  spirit  began  to  show  it- 
self; but  it  was  reserved  for  the  eighteenth  to  wit- 
ness an  indulgence  and  extension  of  it  truly  won- 
derful. Never,  probably,  was  the  human  mind, 
all  things  considered,  so  much  unshackled  in  its  in- 
quiries. Men  have  learned,  in  a  greater  degree 
than  ever  before,  to  make  light  of  precedent,  and 
to  throw  off  the  authority  of  distinguished  names. 
They  have  learned,  with  a  readiness  altogether 
new,  to  discard  old  opinions,  to  overturn  systems 
which  were  supposed  to  rest  on  everlasting  foun- 
dations, and  to  push  their  inquiries  to  the  utmost 
extent,  awed  by  no  sanctions,  restrained  by  no 
prescriptions. 

This  revolution  in  the  human  mind  has  been 
attended  with  many  advantages,  and  with  many 
evils.  It  has  led  to  the  developement  of  much 
truth,  and  has  contributed  greatly  to  enlarge  the 
bounds  of  literature,  science,  and  general  improve- 
ment. It  has  opened  the  way  to  a  free  communi- 
cation of  all  discoveries,  real  or  supposed,  and  re* 


412  RecapitulatiolL 

moved  various  obstacles  which  long  retarded  the 
progress  of  knowledge.  Bat  this  spirit  of  inquiry, 
like  every  thing  else  in  the  hands  of  man,  has  been 
perverted  and  abused.  It  has  been  carried  to  the 
extreme  of  licentiousness.  In  too  many  instances, 
the  love  of  novelty,  and  the  impatience  of  all  re- 
straint founded  on  prescription  or  antiquity,  have 
triumphed  over  truth  and  wisdom  ;  and,  in  the 
midst  of  zeal  for  demolishing  old  errors,  the  most 
sacred  principles  of  virtue  and  happiness  have 
teen  rejected  or  forgotten. 

2.  The  last  century  may  be  emphatically  called 
the  age  of  physical  science.  It  was  not  till  the 
Seventeenth  century  that  the  physical  sciences  be- 
gan to  assume  a  conspicuous  place  among  the  ob- 
jects of  study.  Before  that  period,  the  learned 
languages,  ancient  history;  and  the  metaphysical 
jargon  of  the  schoolmen,  had  chiefly  engrossed  the 
attention  of  literary  and  scientific  men.  From  the 
time  of  Bacon  and  Kepler,  a  taste  for  natural  phi- 
losophy began  to  extend  itself.  This  taste  was 
cherished  and  improved  by  the  scientific  associa- 
tions which  began  to  be  formed  in  different  parts 
of  Europe  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  But  in  the  eighteenth,  it  became  far  more 
predominant  than  at  any  former  period,  and  may 
be  said  to  form  a  prominent  feature  of  the  age. 

It  has  been  seen,  that  several  branches  of  Me- 
chanical Philosophy \  wholly  new,  were  introduced 
into  the  popular  systems  in  the  course  of  this  pe- 
riod ;  and  that  in  almost  all  the  branches  formerly 
studied,  there  were  made  immense  discoveries 
and  improvements.  Chemistry  has  been  so  much 
improved  and  extended,  both  in  its  principles  and 
application,  that  it  may  be  pronounced  a  new  sci- 
ence. In  Natural  History,  the  progress  of  philo- 
sophers, within  the  last  hundred  years,  has  been  no 
Jess  signal  and  honourable.     The  amount  of  what 


Recapitulation.  413 

has  been  accomplished  in  various  plans  of  classifi- 
cation, in  the  corrections  of  nomenclature,  and  in 
additions  to  the  former  lists  of  specimens  in  natural 
history,  more  particularly  in  zoology,  botany,  and 
mineralogy,  is  too  great  to  be  collected  or  exhi- 
bited by  any  individual.  A  similar  extension 
of  our  knowledge  has  taken  place  in  Medicine, 
in  Agriculture,  in  Geography,  and  in  the  princi- 
ples, as  well  as  practice  of  Mechanic  Arts.  All 
these  come  under  the  general  denomination  of 
Physical  Science.  It  is  too  evident  to  admit  of  a 
doubt,  that  there  never  was  a  period  in  which  so 
much  enlightened  attention  was  paid  to  objects 
of  this  kind,  or  any  thing  like  such  a  sum  of 
improvement  introduced  as  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

Some  observers  of  the  revolutions  and  progress 
of  science  have  divided  the  century  under  review 
into  three  parts,  and  considered  each  part  as  par- 
ticularly  distinguished  by  the  cultivation  of  one  of 
the  principal  physical  sciences.  From  1700  till 
1735,  the  Neivtonian  Philosophy  engaged  the 
largest  share  of  the  attention  of  the  learned.  How 
great  a  portion  of  the  publications  and  controver- 
sies of  that  day  had  a  respect  to  this  philosophy,  the 
well-informed  reader  will  not  be  at  any  loss  to  re- 
collect. From  1735  till  about  the  year  1765  or  1770, 
may  be  called  the  period  of  Natural  History fj  as  the 
various  branches  of  study  included  in  this  general 
denomination,  more  especially  zoology  and  botany, 
were  never  before,  in  any  comparable  degree,  so 
much  cultivated.  For  this  prevalence  of  the  study 
of  Natural  History  we  are,  perhaps,  indebted  to  the 
genius,  labours  and  influence  of  no  two  individuals 
so  much  as  to  those  of  Linsueus,  and  the  Count 
De  Buffon.  From  1770  till  1801,  may  be  styled 
the  period  of  Chemistry;  that  science  having  given 
•rise  to  more  numerous  experiments  and  publican 


414  Recapitulation. 

tions  during  this  period  than  any  other.  Thos<^ 
who  had  most  influence  in  bringing  into  vogue  this 
branch  of  physical  science,  and  conferring  upon  it 
that  importance  and  extent  which  it  has  gained,  are 
Scheele,  Klaproth,  Lavoisier,  and  Priestley. 

Upon  a  review  of  the  foregoing  sheets,  it  may 
also  be  remarked,  that  the  physical  sciences,  dur-4 
ing  the  period  in  question,  appear  to  have  been 
cultivated  with  unusual  ardour  in  particular  coun- 
tries. In  Mechanical  and  Mathematical  Philosophy i 
it  is  not  easy  to  say  to  which  of  the  scientific  na- 
tions of  Europe  the  palm  of  superiority  ought  to 
be  awarded.  In  Chemistry,  France  is  doubtless 
entitled  to  the  first  place.  After  her,  Germany, 
Great-Britain,  &c.  follow  in  comparative  merit. 
In  Natural  History,  the  different  nations  may  be 
represented  as  standing  in  the  following  rank. 
First  France,  second  Germany,  third  Sweden^ 
fourth  Great-Britain,  fifth  Switzerland,  Italy,  &c. 
&c.  In  Medicine,  Great-Britain,  beyond  all  doubt, 
has  long  held  the  first  place,  though  it  must  be  ac- 
knowledged, that  the  progress  of  medical  science 
in  France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States,  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  century,  deserves  to  be  no- 
ticed as  very  remarkable  and  promising.  In  Geo- 
graphy, Great-Britain  and  France  must  divide  the 
larger  portion  of  the  mass  of  honours  between 
them.  In  Agriculture,  the  highest  praise  is  un- 
questionably due  to  Great-Britain.  And  in  all 
those  scientific  researches  which  bear  upon  Arts, 
Manufactures,  and  Economy,  the  last  mentioned 
country  must  also  be  pronounced  to  stand  first  in 
order. 

3.  The  eighteenth  century  may,  with  propriety, 
be  styled,  the  age  of  economical  science.  In 
all  preceding  ages,  science,  and  the  economical 
arts  were  too  generally  viewed  as  unconnected. 
The  philosopher  thought  it  beneath  his  dignity  t© 


Recapitulation .  415 

direct  his  inquiries  to  the  aid  of  the  mechanic,  and 
to  the  various  details  of  public  and  domestic  eco- 
nomy ;  ani  the  mechanic  and  economist  had  been 
taught  to  consider  the  inquiries  of  the  philosopher 
as  mere  curious  speculations,  with  which  the  prac- 
tical concerns  of  life  had  little  to  do.  The  eigh- 
.  teenth  century  has  produced  a  signal  revolution, 
both  in  the  aspect  of  scientific  investigations,  and 
in  the  state  of  public  opinion  on  this  subject. 
Philosophy  has  assumed  a  more  practical  and  use- 
ful form.  The  artist  and  the  philosopher  have 
learned  to  go  hand  in  hand.  Many  modern  dis- 
coveries, in  different  branches  of  science,  and 
especially  in  Natural  Philosophy  and  Chemistry, 
while  they  gratify  liberal  curiosity,  and  give  plea- 
sure to  the  man  of  speculation,  have  also  rendered 
essential  service  to  the  Mechanic  arts,  to  Agricul- 
ture, to  Medicine,  to  domestic  economy,  and,  in 
general,  to  the  abridgement  of  labour,  and  to  the 
more  easy  and  cheap  preparation  of  the  various 
comforts  and  elegancies  of  life.  It  would  be  easy 
to  give  a  catalogue  of  economical  philosophers  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  who  were  never  equalled 
by  any  of  preceding  times.  To  mention  no  more, 
our  illustrious  countryman,  Count  Rumford,  at 
the  close  of  this  period,  presented  to  the  wTorid  an 
example  of  practical  science,  of  which  we  shall 
perhaps  search  in  vain  for  a  parallel  in  the  history 
of  man. 

4.  The  last  century  may  also,  in  a  peculiar  and 
distinguishing  sense,  be  called  the  age  of  expe- 
riment. The  mode  of  pursuing  knowledge,  by 
observation,  experiment,  analysis,  and  an  induc- 
tion of  facts,  though  not  absolutely  begun  by  Lord 
Bacon,  was,  for  the  first  time,  employed  to  any 
considerable  extent  by  that  enlightened  philoso^ 
pher.  The  influence  of  his  example  in  this  respect^ 
in  the  sixteenth  century,   in  which  he  lived,  was 


416  Recapitulation. 

comparatively  small.  In  the  seventeenth,  his  plan 
of  philosophizing  was  more  frequently  adopted. 
But  in  the  eighteenth,  it  obtained  an  ascendency 
and  prevalence  never  before  known  in  the  history 
of  science.  Never  were  there  so  many  heads  and 
hands  at  work,  to  deveiope  the  arcana  of  na- 
ture, to  investigate  her  laws,  and  to  bring  former 
principles,  as  far  as  possible,  to  the  test  of  weight, 
measurement,  and  vision.  The  amount  of  experi- 
ments of  different  kinds,  and  instituted  for  differ- 
ent purposes,  laid  before  the  public,  within  this 
period,  by  individuals,  and  by  learned  societies,, 
forms  a  mass  of  stupendous  extent,  and  presents 
one  of  the  most  prominent  features  of  the  age. 

These  remarks  apply  almost  exclusively  to  the 
physical  sciences ;  for  there  is  too  much  reason  to 
suppose,  as  will  be  afterwards  shown,  that,  in  the 
philosophy  of  the  human  mind,  and  especially  of 
human  duty,  the  prevailing  character  of  the  age3 
and  particularly  of  the  latter  part  of  it,  has  been 
that  of  vain  speculation  and  fantastic  theory,  rather 
than  of  principles  dictated  by  sober  and  enlight- 
ened experience.  But  in  the  physical  sciences, 
amidst  much  false  theory,  such  an  immense  variety 
and  amount  of  facts  and  experiments  have  been 
laid  before  the  public,  as  eminently  to  distinguish 
the  eighteenth  from  all  preceding  centuries. 

5.  The  last  age  was  remarkably  distinguished 
by  revolutions  in  science.  Theorists  were  more 
numerous  than  in  any  former  period,  their  systems 
more  diversified,  and  revolutions  followed  each 
other  in  more  rapid  succession.  In  almost  every 
department  of  science,  changes  of  fashion,  of  doc- 
tririe,  and  of  authority,  have  trodden  so  closely  on 
the  heels  of  each  other,  that  merely  to  remember 
and  enumerate  them  would  be  an  arduous  task. 

The  frequency  and  rapidity  of  scientific  revo- 
lutions may  be  accounted  for  in  various  ways. 
The  extraordinary  diffusion  of  knowledge  -,   thp 


Recapitulation .  417 

swarms  of  inquirers  and  experimenters  everv 
where  abounding ;  the  unprecedented  degree  of 
intercourse  which  men  of  science  enjoyed ;  and, 
of  consequence,  the  thorough  and  speedy  investi- 
gation which  every  new  theory  was  accustomed 
to  receive,  all  led  to  the  successive  erection  and 
demolition  of  more  ingenious  and  splendid  fabrics 
than  ever  previously,  within  the  same  compass  of 
time,  passed  before  the  view  of  man. 

The  rapid  succession  of  discoveries,  hypotheses, 
theories  and  systems,  while  it  has  served  to  keep 
the  scientific  world  more  than  ever  awake  and 
busy,  has  done  mischief  by  perplexing  the  mincj 
with  too  many  objects  of  attention,  and  by  ren- 
dering the  labour  of  the  student  more  extensive, 
difficult,  and  tedious.  If,  in  the  seventeenth  cen-r 
tury,  the  inquirer  had  reason  to  complain,  that  the 
shifting  aspect  of  science  rendered  necessary  the 
most  unremitting  vigilance,  and  an  endless  repe- 
tition of  his  toil,  this  complaint  might  have  been 
urged  with  an  hundred  fold  more  reason  in  the 
eighteenth.  The  advantages,  however,  of  this  state 
of  things  may  be  considered,  on  the  whole,  as  pre- 
dominant. The  ardour,  the  competition,  and  the 
diligence  in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge  which  it 
has  inspired,  deserve  at  once  to  be  recognized  as 
beneficial,  and  to  be  noticed  as  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  the  age. 

6.  The  last  century  is  pre-eminently  entitled  to 
the  character  of  the  age  of  printing.  It  is  ge- 
nerally known,  that  this  art  is  but  little  more  than 
three  centuries  old.  Among  the  ancients,  the  dif- 
ficulty and  expense  of  multiplying  copies  of  wTorks 
of  reputation  were  so  great,  that  few  made  the 
attempt;  and  the  author  who  wished  to  submit 
his  compositions  to  the  public,  was  under  the  ne- 
cessity of  reciting  them  at  some  favourable  meet- 
ing of  the  people.  The  disadvantages  attending 
vol,  n.  ig 


418  Recapitulation . 

this  state  of  things  were  many  and  gfeat.  It  re* 
pressed  and  discouraged  talents,  and  rendered  the 
number  of  readers  extremely  small.  The  inven- 
tion of  printing  gave  a  new  aspect  to  literature, 
and  formed  one  of  the  most  important  eras  in  the 
history  of  human  aff?irs.  It  not  only  increased 
the  number,  and  reduced  the  price  of  books,  but 
it  also  furnished  authors  with  the  means  of  laying 
the  fruits  of  their  labours  before  the  public,  in  the 
most  prompt  and  extensive  manner.  Considering 
this  art,  moreover,  as  a  great  moral  and  political 
engine,  by  which  an  impression  may  be  made  on  a 
large  portion  of  a  community  at  the  same  time,  it 
assumes  a  degree  of  importance  highly  interesting 
to  the  philanthropist,  as  well  as  to  the  scholar. 

The  extension  of  this  art  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury forms  one  of  the  leading  features  of  the  age. 
In  the  sixteenth  and  seventeeth  centuries,  especi- 
ally in  the  former,  printing  presses  were  few,  and, 
of  course,  publication  was  by  no  means  easy.  The 
century  under  review  exhibited  an  immense  exten- 
sion of  the  art.  This  extension  was  not  only  gene- 
ral, but  so  great,  that  the  most  moderate  estimate 
presents  a  result  truly  stupendous.  There  was 
probably  a  thousandfold  more  printing  executed  in 
the  course  of  this  century,  than  in  the  whole  pe- 
riod that  had  before  elapsed  since  the  invention  of 
the  art/  The  influence  of  this  fact,  in  increasing 
the  sum  of  public  intelligence,  and  in  keeping  the 
minds  of  men  awake  and  active,  cannot  but  be 
noticed  by  the  most  superficial  observer  of  the  cha- 

x  This  will  appear  a  moderate  calculation,  when  it  is  considered  that 
there  is  a  prodigious  increase,  not  only  in  the  number  of  new  works  an- 
nually issued  from  the  press,  but  also  in  the  extent  and  number  of  edi- 
tions constantly  demanded  by  the  public.  And  when  to  this  is  added  the 
amount  of  printing  which  has  been  continually  going  forward,  particu- 
larly within  the  last  fifty  years,  in  furnishing  the  whole  literary  world  with 
such  a  number  and  variety  of  periodical  publications,  as  Reviews,  Maga- 
zines, Newspapers,  8cc.  the  estimate  above  stated  will  probably  be  thought 
rather  to  fall  below  than  to  exceed  the  truth. 


Recapitulation .  419 

racier  of  the  period  under  consideration.  Print- 
ing presses  have  not  only  become  numerous  in  the 
populous  cities,  in  every  literary  portion  of  the 
world;  but  also  in  remote  parts  of  the  country 
these  engines  for  the  diffusion  of  information  are 
found :  thus  furnishing  the  good  with  the  means 
of  sowing  the  seeds  of  truth  and  virtue,  and  the 
wicked  with  the  means  of  scattering  poison,  to 
an  extent  never  before  witnessed  in  human  society. 
7.  The  last  century  is  entitled  to  distinction 
above  all  others,  as  the  age  of  books;  an  age  in 
which  the  spirit  of  writing,  as  well  as  of  publica- 
tion, exceeded  all  former  precedent.  Though 
this  is  closely  connected  with  the  foregoing  par- 
ticular, it  deserves  a  more  distinct  and  pointed 
notice.  Never,  assuredly,  did  the  world  abound 
with  such  a  profusion  of  various  works,  or  pro- 
duce such  an  immense  harvest  of  literary  fruits. 
The  publication  of  books,  in  all  former  periods 
of  the  history  of  learning,  laboured  under  many 
difficulties.  Readers  were  comparatively  few  f 
of  course  writers  met  with  small  encouragement 
of  a  pecuniary  kind  to  labour  for  the  instruction 
of  the  public.2     Hence,  none  in  preceding  centu- 

y  "  To  prove  the  paucity  of  readers,"  in  the  seventeenth  century,  "  it 
may  be  sufficient  to  remark,  that  the  British  nation  had  been  satisfied 
From  1623  to  1664,  that  is,  a  period  of  forty-one  years,  with  only  nvo  edi- 
tions of  the  works  of  Shakspeare,  whicli  probably  did  not  together  make 
one  thousand  copies."     ir/f  c/  Mii.ton,  by  Johnson. 

Whereas,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  from  1733  to  1778,  that  is,  in  for- 
ty-five years,  ten  large  and  splendid  editions  of  the  same  author  were 
given  to  the  public,  and,  probably,  at  least  ten  more,  of  a  less  magnificent 
kind,  in  various  parts  of  the  British  dominions.  Allowing  each  of  these 
editions  to  have  consisted  of  two  thousand  copies,  which,  on  an  average, 
may  be  supposed  a  moderate  allowance,  the  number  of  copies  of  one  pub- 
lication called  for  by  the  English  literary  public,  in  a  given  period  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  will  be  found  forty  times  greater  than  the  number 
called  for,  during  a  period  nearly  equal  in  the  seventeenth. 

z  The  advantage  now  enjoyed  by  authors,  of  deriving  large  profits 
from  the  sale  of  copy-rights,  is  wholly  modern.  Mr.  Baretti,  a  friend 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  who  resided  for  some  time  in  England,  about  half  a 
century  ago,  told  the  Doctor,  that  he  was  the  first  man  in  Italy  who  re- 
ceived money  for  the  copy-right  of  a  book.  Boswell's  Life  of  Jokn- 
Son,  vol.  ii.  p.  503.     Though  this  practice  had  been  established  ion&  be- 


420  Recapitulation. 

ries  became  authors,  but  such  as  were  prompted 
by  benevolence,  by  literary  ambition,  or  by  an 
enthusiastic  love  of  literature.  But  the  eigh- 
teenth century  exhibited  the  business  of  pub- 
lication under  an  aspect  entirely  new.  It  pre- 
sented an  increase  in  the  number,  both  of  writers 
and  readers,  almost  incredible.  In  this  century, 
for  the  first  time  authorship  became  a  trade. 
Multitudes  of  writers  toiled,  not  for  the  promo- 
tion of  science,  nor  even  with  a  governing  view 
to  advance  their  own  reputation,  but  for  the  mar- 
ket. Swarms  of  boo k-makers  by  profession  arose, 
W7ho  inquired,  not  whether  the  subjects  which 
they  undertook  to  discuss  stood  in  need  of  further 
investigation;  or  whether  they  were  able  to  do 
them  more  ample  justice  than  their  predecessors; 
but  whether  mo7*e  books  might  not  be  palmed  upon 
the  public,  and  made  a  source  of  emolument  to 
the  authors.  Hence,  there  were  probably  more 
books  published  in  the  eighteenth  century,  than  in 
the  whole  time  that  had  before  elapsed  since  the 
art  of  printing  was  discovered;  perhaps  more  than 
were  ever  presented  to  the  public,  either  in  manu- 
script, or  from  the  press,  since  the  creation. 

This  unprecedented  and  wonderful  multiplica- 
tion of  .books,  while  it  has  rendered  the  means 
of  information  more  easy  of  access,  and  more 
popular,  has  also  served  to  perplex  the  mind 
of  the  student,  to  divide  his  attention,  and  to 
distract  his  powers.  Where  there  are  so  many 
books,  there  will  be  less  deep,  original,   and  pa- 

frre  in  Great-Britain,  yet  even  there  the  instances  of  literary  profit  were 
rare,  and  the  amount,  in  general,  extremely  small,  until  the  middle,  and 
toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Milton  sold  his  Paradise 
.Lost  for  five  pounds,  on  condition  of  receiving  some  small  subsequent  emo- 
lument, if  the  sale  should  prove  ready  and  extensive.  Forty-six  years  af- 
terwards, Mr.  Pope  received  two  hundred  pounds  for  each  volume  of  his 
translation  of  the  Iliad,  artvkvee  hundred  pounds  for  the  whole  work.  And 
towards  the  close  of  the  century,  the  rewards  of  Krerary  labour  were,  in 
many  instances,  augmented  tear,  six,  and  even  ten  fold. 


Recapitulation .  42  \ 

tient  thinking;  and  each  work  will  be  studied 
with  less  attention  and  care.  It  may  further  be 
observed,  that  the  abridgements/  compilations, 
epitomes/  synopses,  and  selections  which  are  daily 
pouring  from  the  press  in  countless  numbers,  and 
which  make  so  large  a  part  of  modern  publica- 
tions, have  a  tendency  to  divert  the  mind  from 
the  treasures  of  ancient  knowledge,  and  from  the 
volumes  of  original  authors/  Thus,  the  multipli- 
citv  of  new  publications,  while  they  wTould  seem 
at  first  view,  highly  favourable  to  the  acquisition 
of  learning,  are  found,  as  will  be  afterwards  more 
fullv  shown,  hostile  to  deep  and  sound  erudition. 

The  allurements  to  authorship  which  the  modern 
state  of  literature  holds  out,  also  lead  to  another 
evil,  viz.  the  hasty  production  of  books.  The  no- 
num  prematur  in  annum  of  former  times,  has  been 
too  generally  disregarded  or  forgotten  by  late 
writers.  Authors,  instead  of  holding  their  works 
under  the  polishing  hand  of  criticism  for  many 
years,  are  now  tempted  prematurely  to  hasten  be- 
fore the  public.  We  have  lately  heard  of  an  Epic 
Poem,  nearly  as  long  as  the  Paradise  Lost,  com- 
posed in  gix  zveeks!  and  of  writers  on  the  most  im- 
portant and  difficult  subjects,  running  a  race  with 
the  press.     The  mischiefs  arising  from  such  rapi- 

a  Never  was  there  an  age  in  which  the  abridgement  of  voluminous  works 
was  carried  to  so  great  and  mischievous  a  length  as  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. This  mode  of  treating  a  prclix  writer  may,  in  some  cases,  be  jus- 
tified; but,  in  general,  it  deserves  to  be  reprobated  as  a  practice  both  pre- 
sumptuous and  unfair.  Dr.  Johnson  often  spoke  of  this  practice  in  terms 
of  warm  and  just  indignation.  Once,  in  particular,  hearing  a  friend  ob- 
serve, that  "  abridging  a  good  book  was  like  presenting  a  cow  with  her 
head  and  tail  cut  oif,"  he  replied,  with  equal  wit  and  seventy — "  No,  Sir, 
it  is  making  a  cokv  to  have  a  calf." 

b  "  Epitomes  are  the  moths  and  corruptions  of  history,  that  have  fret- 
ted and  corroded  the  sound  bodies  of  many  excellent  histories,  and  wrought 
them  into  base  and  unprofitable  dregs."     Bacon. 

c  "  It  is  observed,"  says  Dr.  Johnson,  "  that  a  corrupt  society  has 
many  laws;  I  know  not  whether  it  is  not  equally  true,  that  an  ignorant 
age  has  viany  booh.  When  compilers  and  plagiaries  are  encouraged,  the 
treasures  of  ancient  knowledge  will  lie  unexamined,  and  original  authors 
wiil  be  neglected  and  forgotten." 


422  Recapitulation. 

dity  of  composition  are  many  and  great.  Writers 
of  the  most  exalted  genius  and  extensive  learning, 
when  they  proceed  in  this  manner,  must  throw  into 
their  volumes  much  crude  and  indigested  matter; 
and  when  those  of  ordinary  capacity  presume  to 
indulge  in  the  same  haste,  nothing  can  be  expect- 
ed from  them  but  half-formed  conceptions,  and 
useless,  if  not  mischievous  productions.  Hence, 
the  last  age  is  distinguished  above  all  others,  by 
producing  thousands  of  worthless  volumes,  which 
encumber  the  shelves  of  libraries,  and  consume,, 
without  profit,  the  time  of  unwary  readers. 

The  spirit  of  trade,  by  which  the  authors  and 
publishers  of  books  first  began,  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  to  be  actuated  in  any  considerable  degree, 
has  produced,  and  still  continues  to  produce  ano- 
ther serious  evil.  It  too  often  leads  men  to  write, 
not  upon  a  sober  conviction  of  truth,  utility,  and 
duty,  but  in  accommodation  to  the  public  taste, 
however  depraved,  and  with  a  view  to  the  most 
advantageous  sale.  When  pecuniary  emolument 
is  the  leading  motive  to  publication,  books  will 
not  only  be  injuriously  multiplied,  but  they  will 
also  be  composed  on  the  sordid  calculation  of  ob- 
taining the  greatest  number  of  purchasers.  Hence, 
the  temptation  to  sacrifice  virtue  at  the  shrine  of 
avarice.  Hence,  the  licentious  and  seductive  cha- 
racter of  many  of  those  works  which  have  had  the 
greatest  circulation  in  modern  times,  and  which 
have  produced  the  greatest  emolument  to  their 
authors. 

From  the  unprecedented  spirit  of  publication 
which  the  eighteenth  century  exhibited,  it  has 
happened,  as  a  natural  consequence,  that  the  cha- 
racter of  an  author  has  become  lower  in  the  pub- 
lic estimation,  than  it  generally  stood  in  preceding 
ages.  Every  object  loses  something  of  its  value  in 
the  public  esteem,  in  consequence  of  being  cheap 


Recapitulation.  423 

and  common.  Thus  it  has  fared  with  the  dignity 
of  authorship.  Persons  of  this  profession  have  be- 
come so  numerous  in  society;  many  of  those  who 
engage  in  it  discover  such  a  selfish  and  mercenary 
spirit;  and  it  is  found  so  easy  a  task  to  compile  a 
book,  that  their  importance  has  suffered  a  diminu- 
tion in  some  degree  corresponding  with  the  number 
and  worthlessness  of  their  literary  labours. 

Another  signal  revolution  in  the  literary  charac- 
ter of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  closely  con- 
nected with  the  multiplication  of  books,  is,  that 
Booksellers  have  become  the  great  patrons  of  litera- 
ture. In  ancient  times,  authors  having  no  hope 
of  finding  a  remuneration  for  their  labour  in  the  ge- 
neral sale  of  their  works,  were  under  the  necessity 
of  attaching  themselves  to  some  private  patron, 
who,  to  great  wealth,  united  a  fondness  for  litera- 
ture and  literary  men.  Some  of  the  most  accom- 
plished writers  of  antiquity  would  have  been  un- 
able to  pursue  their  studies,  or  to  complete  those 
works  which  have  so  long  instructed  and  delighted 
the  world,  had  they  not  enjoyed  the  smiles  of  cer- 
tain individuals  of  opulence  and  taste,  who  made 
it  their  pride  and  pleasure  to  foster  literary  merit. 
The  same  state  of  things  existed,  in  a  degree,  for 
nearly  two  centuries  after  the  art  of  printing  was 
discovered.  The  number  of  publications  and  of 
readers  was  comparatively  so  small,  that  Booksel- 
lers were  few;  and  those  who  engaged  in  this  em- 
ployment had  little  business,  and,  of  course,  occu- 
pied a  humble  station  in  society.  The  eighteenth 
century  exhibited  this  class  of  tradesmen  under  an 
aspect  entirely  new.  The  great  increase  in  the 
number  of  readers  and  purchasers  of  books,  and 
the  corresponding  increase  in  the  number  of  pub- 
lications, and  in  the  extent  of  the  editions,  both  of 
old  and  new  works,  have  raised  the  bookselling 
business  to  a  most  important  and  lucrative  employ- 


424  Recapitulation. 

merit.  The  number  of  those  who  engage  in  this 
business,  is  probably  increased,  taking  the  literary- 
world  at  large,  more  than  an  hundredfold*  The 
extent  and  profits  of  their  trade  have  grown  in  a 
still  greater  proportion.  These  circumstances  have 
enabled  them  to  become  the  patrons  of  learning; 
to  pay  generously  for  literary  labours;  and  to  put 
it  in  the  power  of  authors  to  appear  more  spee- 
dily and  advantageously  at  the  bar  of  the  public. 
Hence  the  ease  of  publication.  And  hence  the 
countless  number  of  volumes,  which  could  never 
have  found  their  way  to  the  press  in  a  different 
state  of  society. 

8.  The  eighteenth  century   is  distinguished  for 

the     UNPRECEDENTED     DIFFUSION     OF     KNOWLEDGE, 

Not  only  has  a  greater  number  of  books  issued 
from  the  press,  during  this  period,  than  the  accu- 
mulated product  of  all  preceding  ages  can  display; 
but  these  books  have  had  a  more  general  circula- 
tion than  in  any  former  period.  To  read,  a  little 
more  than  a  century  ago,  was  by  no  means  a  ge- 
neral object  of  attention.  At  that  time,  neither 
the  middle  classes  of  society,  nor  oftentimes  per- 
sons of  high  rank,  thought  ignorance  a  disgrace. 
The  Female  sex  seldom  resorted  to  books,  either 
for  amusement  or  instruction;  and  many  respect- 
able habitations  scarcely  contained  a  volume  ex- 
cepting the  Bible,  and  one  or  two  devotional 
books  of  standard  value.  In  fact,  as  books  of  sci- 
ence then  rarely  appeared,  so  "  those  which  did 
appear,  containing  the  accumulated  stores  of  pro- 
found research,  and  entensive  reading,  were  nei- 

d  The  increase  in  the  number  of  Printers  and  Booksellers  in  America, 
during  the  period  in  question,  was  at  least  in  this  proportion.  And  there 
can  be  no  doubt,  that  a  similar  increase  has  taken  place  in  most  other  parts 
of  the  literary  world.  In  the  city  of  Paris,  there  are  said  to  be  four  hun- 
dred and  fifty-five  Booksellers,  and  three  hundred  and  forty  Printers.  In 
London,  the  number,  though  not  so  large,  is  very  great.  In  Germany, 
these  classes  of  tradesmen  are  probably  more  numerous,  but  more  scat- 
tered through  the  empire. 


Recapitulation.  425 

ther  accessible  nor  intelligible,  but  by  a  few  who 
had  leisure,  much  previous  information,  and 
perseverance."  It  is  true,  as  will  be  presently- 
acknowledged,  that  such  as,  at  that  time,  pro- 
fessed to  devote  themselves  to  study,  were,  in  ge- 
neral, at  least  equally,  if  not  more  learned,  than 
those  who  profess  to  belong  to  the  same  class  at 
the  present  day.  But  the  number  of  those  at  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  who  were  in  the 
habit  of  reading  a  few  books,  and  who  possessed 
a  moderate  and  respectable  share  of  information, 
was  certainly  far  greater  than  in  former  periods  of 
the  history  of  man. 

Some  modern  zealots,  indeed,  have  gone  beyond 
all  just  bounds,  in  describing  the  illumination  and 
refinement  of  this  period.  We  are  not  so  much 
wiser  than  our  forefathers,  as  the  sanguine  and  ig- 
norant would  sometimes  represent  us.  But  there 
is  surely  no  extravagance  in  saying,  that  there 
never  was  an  age  in  which  knowledge  of  various 
kinds  was  so  popular  and  so  generally  diffused,  or 
in  which  so  many  publications  were  circulated  and 
read.  The  elements  of  literature  and  science  have 
descended  from  the  higher  classes  of  society,  and 
from  universities,  to  the  middle,  and,  in  some  in- 
stances, to  the  lower  orders  of  men.  Speculations 
which  were  once,  in  a  great  measure,  confined  to 
the  closets  of  the  curious,  have  gradually  mingled 
themselves  with  the  most  prevailing  and  familiar 
doctrines  of  the  day.  Many  modern  females  are 
well  informed,  and  a  few  extensively  learned.  The 
common  people  read  and  inquire  to  a  degree  that 
would  once  have  been  thought  incredible.  Semi- 
naries of  learning  are  multiplied  beyond  all  pre- 
cedent. The  number  of  students  which  they  con- 
tain is,  in  general,  much  greater  than  formerly. 
Modem  books,  even  those  on  subjects  of  science, 
are  now  divested  of  their  former  envelopements  of 

VOL.  II.  3l 


426  Recapitulation. 

dead  languages,  and  presented  in  a  plain  and  po- 
pular dress.  Booksellers,  more  rich,  active  and  en- 
terprizing  than  they  were  a  century  ago,  now  find 
it  their  interest  to  scatter  books  in  every  direction, 
and  to  convey  some  knowledge  of  them  to  every 
door.  Libraries  have  become  far  more  numerous, 
and  are  placed  on  a  more  popular  footing  than  for- 
merly. Circulating  Libraries'  have  been  intro- 
duced during  this  period,  and  have  contributed 
greatly  to  extend  the  taste  and  the  means  of  read- 
ing ;  and,  finally,  periodical  publications,  and  a  va- 
riety of  other  small  works,  which  might  be  pro- 
cured at  a  trifling  expense,  and  understood  by 
moderate  capacities,  or  with  little  previous  infor- 
mation, broke  down  the  large  masses  of  science 
and  learning,  presented  their  component  materials 
in  small  and  convenient  portions,  and  thus  fitted 
them  to  be  received  by  every  mind. 

9.  But,  notwithstanding  the  wonderful  multi- 
plication of  books,  the  last  century  may,  with  pro- 
priety be  styled,  the  age  of  superficial  learn- 
ing. Erudition,  strictly  so  called,  has  been  evi- 
dently on  the  decline,  from  the  commencement 
of  this  period  to  ite  termination.  The  number  of 
readers,  indeed,  and  of  those  who  assume  to  them- 
selves the  title  of  literary  men,  was  doubtless  far 
greater  at  the  close  of  the  century  than  ever  before, 
since  reading  was  known :  but  the  number  of  the 
truly  and  profoundly  learned  was  perhaps  never  so 
small,  in  proportion  to  the  whole  number  who 
rank  with  men  of  letters  and  science.  This  is 
probably  owing,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  fol- 
lowing circumstances. 

The  artificial,  luxurious,  and  dissolute  character 

e  Circulating  Libraries,  it  is  believed,  were  first  instituted  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  The  first  establishment  of  this  kind  in  London  was 
commenced  by  one  Wright,  a  bookseller,  about  the  year  1740.  In  1800 
the  number  of  these  Libraries  in  Great-Britain  was  not  less  than  one 
thousand. 


Recapitulation.  427' 

of  the  age  was  not  favourable  to  laborious  and  pa- 
tient study.  Few  can  be  expected  to  devote  them- 
selves habitually  to  that  kind  of  reading  which  re- 
quires deep  reflection,  and  long  continued  atten- 
tion, amidst  the  solicitations  of  company  and  plea- 
sure, and  the  thousand  dissipating  attractions  which 
an  age  of  refinement,  and  of  greatly  extended  in- 
tercourse, presents. 

Another  circumstance  which  has  contributed  to 
characterize  the  eighteenth  century,  as  an  age  of 
superficial  learning,  is  the  unprecedented  circula- 
tion of  Magazines,  literary  Journals,  Abridgments, 
Epitomes,  &c.  with  which  the  republic  of  letters 
has  been  deluged,  particularly  within  the  last  forty 
years.  These  have  distracted  the  attention  of  the 
student,  have  seduced  him  from  sources  of  more 
systematic  and  comprehensive  instruction,  and 
have  puffed  up  multitudes  with  false  ideas  of  their 
own  acquirements.  The  mass  of  new,  hastily 
composed,  and  superficial  works,  have  engrossed 
the  minds  of  by  far  the  greater  number  of  readers, 
crowded  out  of  view  the  stores  of  ancient  learning, 
and  even  many  of  the  best  works  of  the  preceding 
century,  and  taught  too  many  to  be  satisfied  with 
the  meagerness  of  modern  compends  and  compi- 
lations. It  may  be  safely  pronounced,  that  the 
eighteenth  century,  not  only  with  regard  to  the 
treasures  of  Classic  literature,  but  also  with  respect 
to  a  knowledge  of  the  best  writers  of  all  the  pre- 
ceding seventeen  centuries,  was  retrograde  rather 
than  progressive  throughout  the  whole  of  its 
course. 

An  additional  cause,  unfavourable  to  deep  and 
sound  erudition,  is  the  nature  of  those  employ- 
ments which,  in  modern  times,  solicit  the  atten- 
tion of  mankind.  In  every  age,  a  great  majority 
of  men  are  destined  to  a  laborious  and  active  life. 
But  in  the  eighteenth  century,  the  wonderful  ex- 


4*251  Recapitulation. 

tension  of  the  commercial  spirit;  the  unprecented 
multiplication  of  the  objects  and  means  of  mercan- 
tile speculation;  and  the  numerous  temptations  to 
a  life  of  action,  rather  than  of  study,  have  brought 
more  into  vogue  than  formerly,  that  light,  super- 
ficial, and  miscellaneous  reading,  which  fits  men 
for  the  compting-house,  and  the  scene  of  enterprize 
and  emolument,  rather  than  the  recondite  inves- 
tigations of  the  closet. 

There  is  also  another  cause  which  prevents  in- 
dividuals from  acquiring  the  same  depth  of  learn- 
ing which  was  formerly  attained.  "  The  circle 
of  human  intelligence,  within  an  hundred  years, 
has  been  greatly  extended  :  the  objects  of  curious 
speculation,  and  of  useful  pursuit,  have  multi- 
plied: many  new  branches  of  abstract  science 
have  been  invented:  many  theories  in  physical 
philosophy  have  been  established:  the  mechanical 
arts  have  received  great  enlargement  and  improve- 
ment :  criticism  has  had  its  principles  rendered 
more  evident,  and  its  application  more  exact:  the 
analysis  of  the  human  mind  is  now  generally  an 
object  of  inquiry;  and  modern  authors^  in  volumi- 
nous metaphysical  treatises,  in  histories,  in  poems, 
and  in  novels,  unfold  the  seminal  principles  of  vir- 
tue and  vice,  and  sound  the  depths  of  the  heart 
for  the  motives  of  human  action.  Of  these  ob- 
jects of  mental  occupation,  every  man  who  is  ele- 
vated above  the  lower  orders  of  society,  is  obliged 
to  know  something,  either  by  the  love  of  novelty, 
or  by  the  shame  of  ignorance.  But  if  the  objects 
of  inquiry  be  numerous,  each  cannot  be  investi- 
gated profoundly;  the  powers  of  the  human  mind 
are  finite,  and  the  union  of  accuracy  and  universa- 
lity of  knowledge  is  a  chimera.  In  this  case,  there- 
fore, the  search  will  not  be  for  complete  and  sys- 
tematic treatises,  which  examine  a  subject  on  all 
Sides,  and  in  its  minutest  parts,  detect  it  in  its  most 


Recapitulation.  429 

obscure  beginnings,  and  trace  its  influence  in  the 
remotest  consequences ;  but  for  books  of  less  tre- 
mendous bulk,  which  exhibit  the  subject  in  its 
most  material  points,  preserving  general  outlines, 
and  principal  features. "J 

To  the  causes  above  mentioned  may  be  added 
one  other,  derived  from  the  more  frequent  inter- 
course of  men  in  advanced  civilization.  "  In  this 
intercourse,  a  taste  for  learned  and  ingenious  con- 
versation has  arisen,  and  the  natural  desire  of  su- 
periority impels  men  to  excel  in  it.  But  in  col- 
lecting means  for  acquiring  this  excellence,  the  spe- 
cious rather  than  the  useful  are  sought.  Facts  are 
stored,  not  for  the  exercise  of  rational  criticism, 
nor  for  the  deduction  of  important  truth,  but  that 
they  may  be  again  distributed."^  Hence  the  temp- 
tation to  study  many  subjects  superficially,  but  to 
gain  the  complete  mastery  of  none.  Hence  those 
scraps  and  shreds  of  knowledge  which  are  daily 
served  up  in  periodical  publications,  and  scattered 
through  all  grades  of  society,  excepting  the  very 
lowest,  in  popular  manuals,  form  a  large  part  of 
that  learning  which  is  daily  sported  in  the  social 
circle,  and  in  the  conflicts  of  disputation. 

10.  From  the  details  which  have  been  given  in 
the  foregoing  chapters,  it  appears  that  the  last  cen- 
tury may,  with  peculiar  propriety,  be  styled,  the 

AGE  OF  TASTE  AND  REFINEMENT.  In  the  produc- 
tions of  bold  and  original  genius,  though  greatly 
fruitful,  it  has,  perhaps,  been  exceeded  by  some 
former  ages  $  but  in  the  general  prevalence  of  taste 
and  refinement,  it  may  be  confidently  asserted  that 
no  age  ever  equalled  the  last.  This  remark  might 
be  illustrated  at  great  length,  by  recurring  to  the 

/  Monthly  fieviaa,  vol.  xxix.  p.  302,  N.  S. 
g  Ibid. 

h  "  Much  has  been  written  in  this  age,"  says  Voltaire,  "  but  genius 
belonged  to  the  last." 


430  Recapitulation . 

state  of  the  various  branches  of  human  knowledge 
and  art,  during  the  period  in  question. 

In  the  physical  sciences  it  might  be  shown,  that, 
though  great  and  splendid  discoveries  have  been 
made  in  this  period,  much  more  has  been  done 
in  pursuing  former  discoveries,  in  extending  the 
limits  of  principles  before  established,  in  forming 
systems  of  classification,  arrangement,  and  nomen- 
clature>  and  in  conferring  beauty  and  elegance  on 
every  part.  In  the  Mechanic  Arts  also,  inventions 
have  been  made  highly  honourable  to  the  genius 
of  the  age;  but  the  improvements  in  simplicity, 
convenience,  accuracy,  and  exquisite  nicety  of 
workmanship,  are  far  more  numerous,  and  more 
strikingly  characteristic  of  the  age/  But,  perhaps, 
to  Polite  Literature  this  general  remark  may  be  ap- 
plied with  still  more  confidence,  and  to  a  greater 
extent.  The  poets  and  historians  of  the  eighteenth 
century  have  the  advantage  of  all  their  predeces- 
sors in  no  respect  so  decidedly  as  in  uniform  cor- 
rectness, polish,  and  taste.  In  a  word,  the  Mas- 
ter  Builders  in  the  temple  of  knowledge,  during 
this  period,  have  been,  perhaps,  fewer  in  number 
than  in  several  preceding  centuries ;  but  neither 
the  number  nor  the  success  of  those  who  busied 
themselves  in  extending,  polishing,  and  adorning 
the  fabric,  was  ever  so  great. 

This  feature  of  the  last  age  remarkably  appears 
in  the  state  of  what  may  be  called  the  mechanical 
part  of  literature.  The  refined,  elegant,  and  ex- 
pensive manner  in  which  books  have  been  for  some 
time  printed  and  decorated,  more  especially  within 

i  It  cannot  be  denied,  that  some  articles  of  ancient  manufacture  which 
have  come  down  to  our  times,  discover  an  exquisite  polish  and  elegance 
of  workmanship,  which  we  seldom  find  exceeded,  perhaps  not  equalled 
at  the  present  day.  But  that  the  Mechanic  Arts,  in  general,  reached  a  de- 
gree of  improvement  in  the  eighteenth  century,  which  they  could  never 
before  boast,  particularly  in  simplicity,  convenience  and  beauty,  it  is  pr«k- 
>umed  that  none  will  hesitate  to  admit. 


Recapitulation.  431 

the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  of  the  century,  as  it 
marks  a  period  of  luxury  and  taste,  so  we  may 
question  whether  it  has  not  been  carried  to  an  in- 
jurious length.  If  this  system  of  sacrificing  the 
useful  to  the  ornamental  be  pursued  much  further, 
it  must  contract  the  circulation  of  books,  and,  of 
course,  diminish  the  number  both  of  authors  and 
of  readers.  Some  have  even  pronounced,  that  it 
must  operate  to  produce  a  "  counter  revolution  in 
the  republic  of  letters,  and  introduce  all  the  mis- 
fortunes of  a  manuscript  age." 

11.  The  century  under  consideration  may  be 
denominated  the  age  of  infidel  philosophy. 
There  have  been  in  every  age  "  profane  and  vain 
babblings,  and  oppositions  of  science  falsely  so 
called."  But  it  may  be  confidently  pronounced,  that 
there  never  was  an  age  in  which  so  many  deliberate 
and  systematic  attacks  were  made  on  Revealed 
Religion,  through  the  medium  of  pretended  sci- 
ence, as  in  the  last.  A  few  truly  learned  and  in- 
genious men  made  such  attacks  the  main  business 
of  their  lives;  and  many  others,  of  humbler  name, 
who  vainly  aspired  to  the  name  of  philosophers, 
have  directed  their  puny  efforts  towards  the  same 
object. 

The  doctrine  of  Materialism,  probably,  had  a 
greater  currency  among  certain  classes  of  the 
learned,  during  this  period,  than  in  any  former 
age  enlightened  with  Christian  knowledge.  It 
was,  indeed,  pushed  to  an  atheistical  length  by 
some  who  assumed  the  name,  and  gloried  in  the 
character  of  philosophers.  Astronomical  records 
have  been  fabricated  or  misinterpreted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  discrediting  the  sacred  chronology.  The 
natural  history  of  the  Earth,  of  Man,  and  of  other 
animals,  has  been  pursued  with  unwearied  dili- 
gence, to  find  evidence  which  should  militate 
against  the  information  conveyed  in  the  Scriptures. 


432  Recapitulation. 

The  discoveries  in  Chemistry  have  been  tortured  to 
furnish  a  physical  solution  of  all  those  phenomena 
of  motion,  life,  and  mind,  which  are  unanimously- 
considered,  by  more  sober  inquirers,  as  teaching 
the  immateriality  of  the  soul,  and  as  proclaiming 
the  existence  of  a  supreme  intelligent  First 
Cause.  Systems  of  Moral  and  Political  philoso- 
phy have  been  formed,  by  which  their  authors 
meant  to  strike  at  the  root  of  evangelic  truth. 
And  all  the  stores  of  ancient  and  modern  literature 
have  been  ransacked  to  obtain  some  pretext  for 
disbelieving  the  precious  Records  which  God  con- 
descended to  bestow  on  our  fallen  race. 

This  rage  for  impious  theory,  though  it  had 
long  before  existed,  began  more  boldly  and  exten- 
sively to  proclaim  its  views  about  twenty  years 
before  the  close  of  the  period  under  consideration. 
There  is  scarcely  a  single  branch  of  human  know- 
ledge to  which  this  scientific  and  literary  perver- 
sion has  not  reached;  and  scarcely  a  ridiculous  or 
odious  form  of  error  to  which  it  has  not  given  rise. 
Were  these  motley  and  grotesque  figures,  formed 
by  perverted  genius,  only  intended  to  traverse  the 
stage,  for  the  temporary  purpose  of  amusement, 
they  might  excite  less  of  our  attention ;  but, 
considering  them,  as  their  framers  have  anxiously 
desired  to  make  them  be  considered,  as  guides  to 
knowledge,  and  as  rules  of  action,  every  lover  of 
human  happiness  will  regard  them  with  more 
serious  and  indignant  feelings.  And  although 
their  influence  has  been  counteracted  by  means 
which  will  be  presently  mentioned,  they  have  yet 
poisoned  the  principles,  and  completed  the  ruin 
of  millions. 

Almost  every  successive  age  has  some  peculiarity 
in  the  style  and  manner  of  its  philosophers  and 
writers;  some  particular  livery,  which  serves  to 
distinguish  it  from  other  times.     The  scientific 


Recapitulation.  433 

liyery  of  the  last  age  is,  as  we  have  seen,  a  fantastic 
patch-work,  enriched  with  many  beautiful  and 
precious  materials,  but  deformed  by  the  mixture  of 
many  gaudy  colours  and  false  ornaments.  Among 
the  latter  we  may  reckon  that  continual  prating 
about  the  "  energies  and  progress  of  Mind,"  the 
"  triumph  of  Reason,"  the  "  omnipotence  of  Phi- 
losophy," the  "  perfectibility  of  Man,"  &c.  &c. 
which  was  never  before  so  loud  and  frequent ; 
which  has  been  employed,  with  particular  volubi- 
lity and  success,  by  infidel  philosophers;  and  which, 
amidst  continual  and  abundant  refutations,  is  yet 
clamorous  and  obtrusive. 

12.  The  period  under  review  may  be  pronounced 
the  age  of  Christian  Science.  This  is  by  no> 
means  inconsistent  with  the  statement  in  the  last 
particular ;  for,  after  all  the  attacks  of  infidelity, 
and  of  theoretical  philosophy,  the  Religion  of 
Christ,  when  contemplated  through  the  medium 
of  science,  has  had  a  complete  and  unprecedented 
triumph  during  this  period.  It  has  been  often 
objected  to  Christianity,  that  it  is  unfavourable  to 
the  progress  of  knowledge;  that  it  discourages 
scientific  enterprize;  that  it  is  inimical  to  free  in- 
quiry, and  has  a  tendency  to  keep  the  minds  of 
men  in  blindness  and  thraldom.  The  history  o£ 
the  last  concurs  with  that  of  many  preceding  cen- 
turies, in  demonstrating  that  the  very  reverse  o£ 
what  the  objection  states  is  the  truth.  Christian 
nations,  during  the  period  in  question,  have  been, 
of  all  others,  most  remarkable  for  favouring  the 
advancement  of  liberal  knowledge.  In  those  coun- 
tries in  which  Religion  has  existed  in  its  greatest 
purity,  and  has  enjoyed  the  most  general  preva- 
knee,  literature  and  science  have  been  most  ex- 
tensively and  successfully  cultivated.  It  is  also 
worthy  of  remark,  that,  among  all  the  professions 
denominated  learned,  the  clerical  profession  may 

VOL.   II.  3K 


I8#  Recapitulation. 

be  considered  as  having  furnished  as  many,  if 
not  more  authors  of  distinction  than  any  other. 
And  if  we  join  to  the  clergy  those  lay-authors  who 
have  been  no  less  eminent  as  Christians  than  as 
scholars,  the  predominance  of  learning  and  talents 
on  the  side  of  Religion  will  appear  too  great  to  ad- 
mit of  comparison, 

But  this  is  not  all: — As  the  last  century  is  re- 
markable for  having  furnished  an  unprecedented 
number  of  attacks  on  Revealed  Religion,  through 
the  medium  of  science ;  so  it  is  also  no  less  re- 
markable for  having  derived  much  support  to 
Revelation,  and  much  valuable  illustration  of  the 
Sacred  Writings,  from  the  inquiries  of  philosophers 
and  the  observations  of  travellers.  Many  of  the 
discoveries  made  in  mechanical  and  chemical  phi- 
losophy, during  this  period,  have  served  to  elu- 
cidate and  confirm  various  parts  of  the  Christian 
Scriptures.  Every  sober  and  well-directed  inquiry 
into  the  natural  history  of  man,  and  of  the  globe 
we  inhabit,  has  been  found  to  corroborate  the 
Mosaic  account  of  the  Creation,  the  Fall,  the  De- 
luge, the  Dispersion,  and  other  important  events 
recorded  in  the  sacred  volume.  To  wmich  we 
may  add,  that  the  reports  of  voyagers  and  travel- 
lers, within  this  period,  have  no  less  remarkably 
served  to  illustrate  the  sacred  records,  and  to  con- 
firm the  faith  of  Christians.  Never  was  there  a 
period  of  the  same  extent  in  which  so  much  light 
and  evidence  in  favour  of  Revelation  were  drawn 
from  the  inquiries  of  philosophy  as  in  that  which 
is  under  review:  nor  was  it  ever  rendered  so  ap- 
parent, that  the  information  and  the  doctrines  con- 
tained in  the  sacred  volume  perfectly  harmonize 
with  the  most  authentic  discoveries,  and  the 
soundest  principles  of  science. 

13.  The  last  century  may  be  emphatically  cal- 
led the  age  of  translations.-—"  Of  almost  every 


Recapitulation,  45$ 

other  kind  of  writing  the  ancients  have  left  us 
models  which  all  succeeding  ages  have  laboured 
to  imitate;  but  Translation  may  justly  be  claimed 
by  the  moderns  as  their  own."- — The  Greeks,  so 
far  as  we  know,  achieved  nothing  worthy  of  no- 
tice in  this  department  of  literary  labour.  The 
Romans,  who  confessed  themselves  the  scholars 
of  the  Greeks,  made  a  few  versions  of  those  writ- 
ings which  they  followed  as  models/  but  itdoes 
not  appear  that  any  of  their  writers  grew  eminent 
by  translation;  and,  indeed,  it  was  probably  more 
frequent  to  translate  for  private  exercise  or  amuse- 
ment than  for  fame. 

For  three  centuries  past  the  art  of  translation 
has  been  gradually  gaining  ground  throughout  the 
literary  world,  both  in  frequency  and  elegance/ 
But  the  extension  of  this  art,  in  both  these  re- 
spects, during  the  period  under  review,  was  so 
great  and  signal,  that  it  must  be  considered  as 
forming  a  remarkable  feature  of  the  age.- — Trans- 
lations from  every  polished  language,  into  every 
other  of  this  character,  have  not  only  become  nu- 
merous, but  have  also  attained,  particularly  within 

j  Every  man  in  Rome  who  aspired  to  the  praise  of  literature  thought 
it  necessarv  to  learn  Greek,  and,  therefore,  stood  in  little  need  of  trans- 
lations. Translation,  however,  was  not  wholly  neglected.  Dramatic 
poems  could  be  understood  by  the  people  in  no  language  but  their  own ; 
and  the  Romans  were  sometimes  entertained  with  the  tragedies  of  Eu- 
ripides, and  the  comedies  of  Menakder.  Other  works  were  some- 
times attempted :  in  an  old  scholiast  there  is  mention  of  a  Latin  Iliad, 
and  we  have  not  wholly  lost  Cicero's  version  of  the  poem  of  Aratus.— 
Idler,  ii.  No.  68. 

k  Chaucer,  the  father  of  English  poetry,  was  among  the  first  trans- 
lators into  our  language.  He  left  a  version  of  Boetius  On  the  Comforts 
of  Philosophy,  which,  though  dull,  prosaic,  and  inelegant,  held  at  that 
early  period,  a  conspicuous  place.  Some  improvement  in  the  art  of  trans- 
lation was  made  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth;  but.  still  any  thing 
like  freedom  and  elegance  was  seldom  attained.  It  was  not  till  towards 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  that  this  art  began  to  be  generally 
understood,  and  its  proper  principles  reduced  to  practice.  It  is  unnceessary 
to  add,  that,  since  that  time  many  specimens  of  translation  have  been 
presented  to  the  world,  which  are  altogether  unequalled  in  the  history  of 
preceding  ages. 


436  Recapitulation. 

the  last  fifty  years,  a  degree  of  refinement  and  ex« 
cellence  never  before  known.  Versions  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  Classics  have  especially  abound- 
ed during  the  period  in  question.  And  though 
this  circumstance  has  contributed  to  render  some 
knowledge  of  those  great  works  of  antiquity  more 
popular,  it  has  also  been  connected  with  the  de- 
cline of  Classic  Literature,  which  was  before  men- 
tioned. As  elegant  versions  increased  in  number 
and  circulation,  it  was  natural  that  the  originals 
should  become  gradually  more  neglected. 

The  number  and  excellence  of  modern  trans- 
lations may  be  considered  as  removing  one  of  the 
impediments  which  bar  the  way  to  science,  and 
as  diminishing  the  inconvenience  arising  from  the 
multiplicity  of  languages.  But  the  length  to  which 
this  practice  is  now  carried  will  probably  be  found 
to  discourage  the  study  of  languages,  to  diminish 
literary  industry,  and,  of  course,  to  render  know- 
ledge still  more  superficial. 

14.  The  last  century  may  further  be  denominated 
the  age  of  literary  honours.  The  practice  of 
conferring  the  honours  of  literary  institutions  on 
individuals  of  distinguished  erudition,  commenced 
in  the  twelfth  century;  when  the  Emperor  Lotha- 
Rius,  having  found  in  Italy  a  copy  of  the  Roman 
Civil  Law,  ordained  that  it  should  be  publicly  ex- 
pounded in  the  schools:  and  that  he  might  give 
encouragement  to  the  study,  he  further  ordered, 
that  the  public  Professors  of  this  law  should  be 
dignified  with  the  title  of  Doctors.1  Not  long 
afterwards  the  practice  of  creating  Doctors  was 
borrowed  from  the  Lawyers  by  Divines,  who,  in 
their  schools,  publicly  taught  divinity,   and  conr 


/  The  first  person  created  a  Doctor,  after  this  ordinance  of  the  Empe* 
ror,  was  Bulgarus  Hugoliistus,  who  was  greatly  distinguished  for  hi* 
learning  and.  literary  labour. 


Recapitulation.  437 

ferred  degrees  on  those  who  had  made  great  pro- 
ficiency in  this  science. m 

From  this  period  till  the  beginning  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  the  conferring  of  literary  honours 
was  generally  conducted  by  the  respectable  Univer- 
sities of  Europe,  in  a  cautious,  discriminating,  and 
judicious  manner.  And  even  in  the  former  half 
of  the  century  under  review,  these  honours  were 
bestowed  with  much  comparative  reserve  and  de- 
liberation." But  in  the  latter  half  of  this  period, 
the  practice  of  literary  institutions,  in  this  respect, 
was  materially  different.  As  the  students  in  these 
institutions  became  more  numerous,  and  literary 
characters  in  general  more  common,  Universities 
began  to  bestow  their  laurels  with  a  more  free  and 
incautious  hand.  Genuine  erudition  and  talents 
began  to  be  less  considered  as  qualifications,  than 
station,  popularity,  or  wealth.  By  these  means, 
collegiate  honours  have  become  by  far  more  cheap 
and  common,  during  the  period  under  review, 
than  in  any  former  age ;  but,  as  the  natural  con- 
sequence of  this,  they  have  also  become  less  va- 
luable and  less  esteemed. 

The  same  remarks,  in  substance,  apply  to  mem- 
bership in  literary  and  scientific  Societies.  Before 
the  eighteenth  century,  honours  of  this  kind  were 
conferred  on  few  or  none  but  those  who  were 
eminent  for  learning  or  talents.  Bat  the  popular 
diffusion  of  knowledge,  and  the  artificial  state  of 
society  which  distinguish   the  last  age,  led  to  a 


m  This  practice  of  conferring  degrees  in  Divinity  was  first  adopted 
in  the  universities  of  Bononia,  Paris  and  Oxford. — See  Mather's  Mag- 
nalia  Christi  Americana,  b.  iv.  p.  134. 

n  It  is  remarkable  that  the  celebrated  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  when 
he  had  made  great  proficiency  in  literature,  could  not  obtain  the  degree 
of  Master  of  Arts  from  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  though  powerful  interest 
was  made  in  his  behalf  for  this  purpose.  Instances  of  the  failure  of  ap- 
plications of  a  similar  kind,  made  in  favour  of  characters  still  more  dis- 
tinguished than  Johnson  was  at  that  period,  are  also  on  record. 


43S  Recapitulation. 

more  unsparing  distribution  of  honours  of  *this 
kind ;  so  that  literary  and  scientific  associations,  at 
the  close  of  the  period  which  is  the  subject  of  this 
retrospect,  consisted  of  a  larger  number  of  members 
than  ever  before,  and  more  particularly  of  members 
of  an  unqualified  and  inefficient  character. 

15.  The  eighteenth  century  was  pre-eminently 

THE  AGE  OF  LITERARY  ANDSCIENTIFIC  INTERCOURSE. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  remarked  in  the  foregoing 
sheets,  that  the  extension  of  Commerce,  the  dis- 
coveries in  Geography,  and  the  improvements  in 
Navigation,  in  the  Mechanic  Arts,  and  in  the 
modes  of  travelling,  have  led  to  a  more  general 
intercourse  among  mankind  than  in  any  former 
period.  This  remark  may  be  extended  to  the  re- 
public of  letters.  In  all  preceding  ages,  learned 
men  were  in  a  great  measure  insulated.  Those  of 
one  country  knew  little  of  those  of  another;  and 
if  any  one  wished  to  obtain  more  particular  infor- 
mation concerning  the  treasures  of  knowledge 
possessed  by  an  individual,  or  a  nation,  he  was 
under  the  necessity  of  travelling  into  the  country 
with  which  he  sought  to  be  acquainted,  and  of 
making  personal  inquiry  for  this  purpose.  And 
even  after  the  art  of  printing  was  discovered,  the 
intercourse  between  dirTerent  parts  of  the  learned 
world  was  so  small,  for  more  than  two  centuries, 
that  some  of  the  greatest  benefactors  to  the  cause 
of  knowledge  were  little  known  out  of  their  own 
country,  and  some  but  imperfectly  even  within 
these  limits. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  remarkably 
otherwise.  The  great  extension  of  the  art  of 
printing  in  this  period,  joined  with  the  circumstan- 
ces above  stated,  have  brought  ail  classes  of  men 
in  the  literary  world  better  acquainted  with  each 
other,  and  especially  those  who  are  devoted  to  the 
improvement  of  letters  and  science.     The  number 


Recapitulation.  439 

of  literary  Journals  in  every  part  of  Europe  has 
greatly  increased  within  the  last  fifty  years,  their 
plans  have  been  much  improved,  and  their  circula- 
tion  prodigiously  extended;    learned  individuals 
and  societies  now  maintain  a  more  free  and  friendly 
correspondence  than  formerly;  the  great  improve- 
ments in  Post-office  establishments,  within  this  pe- 
riod, have  facilitated,  to  an  unparalleled  degree,  the 
intercourse  between  distant  parts  of  the  earth;8 
foreigners  of  distinction  are  more  frequently  elected 
members  of  academies  and  other  associations  of  a 
similar  kind;  Commerce,  as  its  channels  became 
multiplied  and  enlarged,  furnished,  at  once,  a  con- 
venient medium,  and  strong  incentives  to  literary 
intercourse;  the  great  increase  in  the  practice  of 
translating  respectable  wTorks  into  all  polished  lan- 
guages, has  also  served  to  render  books  of  value, 
and  their  authors,  more  generally  known: — to  all 
which  maybe  added,  that  the  increased  frequency 
and  extent  of  modern  travels,  have  been  decidedly 
favourable  to  the  correspondence  of  learned  men, 
and  to  a  knowledge  of  the  works  and  characters  of 
one  another. 

Such  is  an  imperfect  outline  of  the  literary  and 
scientific  character  of  the  century  to  which  we  have 
just  bidden  adieu.  The  picture  is  necessarily  exten- 
sive and  various;  and  the  features,  however  unskil- 
fully sketched,  are  presented  with  sufficient  accuracy 

o  To  illustrate  this  remark,  two  or  three  facts  will  be  stated  with  re- 
gard to  a  single  post-office  establishment.  In  1728  the  London  post  ar- 
rived one  day  at  Edinburgh  with  only  one  six-penny  London  letter,  and 
that  was  addressed  to  the  Post-Master-General  on  office  business.  The 
arrival  of  the  post  was  then  only  once  a  fortnight ;  now  it  is  six  times 
a  week.  The  post  then  employed  ten  days  in  travelling  from  London  to 
Edinburgh;  now  it  employs  only  three.  Then  the  mail  produced  no  re- 
venue or  nett  profit  to  government,  but  was  rather  a  continual  charge ; 
but  the  revenue  of  the  post-office  in  Scotland,  for  the  year  ending  in 
April,  1802,  was  £85,791  lis.  3d.  sterling,  or  about  500,000  dollars/  A 
corresponding  increase  in  commercial  and  literary  intercourse  has  taken 
place  in  the  same  period,  in  almost  every  cultivated  part  of  the  world. 


440  Recapitulation. 

to  show  that  they  are  striking,  arid  worthy  of  more 
minute  examination.  They  are  not,  indeed,  all  cal-^ 
culated  to  give  pleasure  to  the  benevolent  mind : 
some  are  distorted  and  disgusting,  and  a  few  heavy 
and  uninteresting;  but  a  much  greater  number  are 
at  once  strong,  highly  illuminated,  and  pre-emi- 
nently engaging.  If  these  be  mingled,  as  in  most 
pictures  that  are  drawn  true  to  nature,  it  is  presumed 
that,  in  the  present  instance,  the  agreeable  features 
predominate  in  a  greater  degree  than  in  any  deli- 
neation of  a  former  period  of  similar  extent. 

Those,  therefore,  who  have  witnessed  the  close 
of  the  century  under  review,  have  indeed  reason 
to  congratulate  themselves  as  an  highly  favoured 
generation.  Though  they  have  been  pained  with 
the  sight  of  some  degrading  retrocessions  in  human 
knowledge,  and  almost  stunned  with  the  noisy 
pretensions  of  false  philosophy,  they  have  seen,  at 
the  same  time,  improvements  in  science,  which 
their  fathers,  a  century  ago,  would  have  antici-^ 
pated  with  astonishment,  or  pronounced  altoge- 
ther impossible.  They  have  seen  a  larger  por-^ 
tion  of  human  society  enlightened,  polished,  and 
comfortable,  than  ever  before  greeted  the  eye 
of  benevolence.  They  have,  in  a  word,  witnes- 
sed, on  the  one  hand,  the  accession  of  honours 
to  science,  which  it  could  boast  in  no  former  pe- 
riod ;  and,  on  the  other,  a  degree  of  usefulness 
reflected  from  science  to  economy  and  art,  no  less 
conspicuous  and  unrivalled.  The  lapse  of  another 
century  such  as  the  eighteenth — -a  century  that 
should  bring  with  it  an  equal  amount  of  discoveries 
and  improvements,  and  present  an  equally  rapid 
increase  in  the  means,  and  in  the  diffusion  of  know- 
ledge, would  confer  an  aspect  on  systems  of  sci- 
ence, of  which  we,  at  present,  are  little  qualified 
to  judge.  Such  a  century  the  nineteenth  is  likely 
to  prove. 


Recapitulation .  441 

But  let  none  indulge  the  vain  dream  that  all 
darkness  is  about  to  be  banished  from  the  earth, 
and  that  human  nature  is  rapidly  hastening  to  per- 
fection. "  When  the  philosophers  of  the  seventeenth 
century  were  first  congregated  into  the  Royal  So- 
ciety, we  are  told  that  great  expectations  were  raised 
of  the  sudden  progress  of  useful  arts.  The  time  was 
supposed  to  be  near  when  engines  should  turn  by  a 
perpetual  motion,  and  health  be  secured  by  the 
universal  medicine;  when  learning  should  be  fa- 
cilitated by  a  real  character,  and  commerce  ex- 
tended by  ships  which  could  reach  their  ports  in 
defiance  of  the  tempest.  But  that  time  never 
came.  The  Society  met  and  parted  without  any 
visible  diminution  of  the  miseries  of  life.  The 
gout  and  stone  were  still  painful ;  the  ground 
that  was  not  ploughed  brought  forth  no  harvest ; 
and  neither  oranges  nor  grapes  could  grow  upon 
the  hawthorn. "p  The  same  result,  it  may  be  con- 
fidently predicted,  will  appear  at  the  close  of  the 
century  on  which  we  have  now  entered.  The 
advocates  of  the  supremacy  of  Reason  and  the 
perfectibility  of  Man,  at  every  successive  retros- 
pect of  human  affairs,  will  find  themselves  refuted 
and  confounded.  And  though  Science,  slowly 
advancing  amidst  the  opposing  hosts  of  prejudice, 
mistaken  facts,  and  false  theories,  will  reach  far 
beyond  its  present  limits,  it  must  ever  fall  short  of 
those  extravagant  expectations  which,  founded  in 
ignorance  of  human  nature,  and  discarding  the 
dictates  of  experience,  cannot  avoid  proceeding 
in  error,  and  ending  in  disappointment. 

Philosophers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  !  your 
predecessors  of  the  past  age  have  bequeathed  to 
you  an  immeasurable  mass  both  of  good  and  evil. 
Contemplate  the  labours  and  the  progress  of  your 

VOL.    II.  3L 

p  Idler,  vcl.  ii    No.  88. 


442  Recapitulation. 

fathers,  and  be  animated  in  your  course  !  Mark 
the  mistakes  of  those  deluded  and  presumptuous 
spirits  who  have  misled  and  corrupted  their  species^ 
and  learn  caution  and  wisdom  from  their  errors! 
Behold  how  much  has  been  done  by  patient  in- 
quiry, by  faithful  observation,  by  accurate  expe- 
riment, and  by  careful  analysis  and  induction;  but 
how  little  by  fanciful  speculation,  by  the  dreams 
of  hypothesis,  by  vain  boastings  or  by  waging 
war  against  Nature's  God!  Learn  to  distinguish 
that  Philosophy  which  is  the  friend  of  truth,  the 
handmaid  of  virtue,  the  humble  interpreter  of  Jeho- 
vah's works,  and  the  ornament  of  rational  minds, 
from  that  ignis  fatuus  which  shines  but  to  deceive, 
and  allures  but  to  destroy.  Remember  that  by 
giving  yourselves  up  to  the  guidance  of  the  latter,- 
you  can  gain  nothing  but  disappointment  and 
shame;  but  that  the  sober,  diligent,  and  perse- 
vering pursuit  of  the  former  is  the  plain  and  only 
road  to  those  discoveries  which  will  yet  further 
enrich  the  sciences;  to  those  improvements  which 
will  adorn  life ;  to  those  practical  arts  which  will 
add  utility  to  ornament ;  and  to  that  substantial 
advancement  in  knowledge  which  the  enlightened 
and  benevolent  mind  anticipates  with  a  glow  of 
delight. 


ADDITIONAL  NOTES 


NOTES  ON  CHAPTER  XIL 

Metaphysical  Science  not  popular,  p.  3. 

1  HE  disposition  to  undervalue  and  neglect  metaphysical 
science  is  one  of  the  most  disgraceful  characteristics  of  the 
last  age.  The  influence  of  this  disposition  is  more  extensive 
and  more  mischievous  than  is  commonly  imagined.  It  is 
unfavourable  to  strength  and  accuracy  of  reasoning;  has  a 
most  pernicious  effect  on  morals  and  religion,  and,  conse- 
quently, on  private  and  public  happiness.  When  a  man  de- 
clares that  he  has  no  taste  for  metaphysical  reading  and  in- 
quiries, he  pronounces  a  satire  on  his  own  mind;  but  when 
he  ridicules  those  who  have  such  a  taste,  he  attempts  to  tram- 
ple on  the  dignity  and  the  happiness  of  his  species.  Such  per- 
sons surely  forget  that  some  of  the  most  important  questions 
that  interest  us  as  men,  as  scholars,  and  as  Christians,  can 
only  receive  a  correct  solution  by  means  of  metaphysical  prin- 
ciples. 

Des  Cartes,  p.  3. 

Renes  Des  Cartes  was  born  at  La  Haye,  in  France,  in 
1596,  and  educated  among  the  Jesuits.  His  doctrines  con- 
cerning the  human  mind  were  first  published  about  the  year 
1633,  and  soon  began  to  excite  much  attention  among  the 
learned.  For  a  number  of  years  before  his  death  he  re- 
sided chiefly  in  Holland.  Removing  to  Stockholm,  in  con- 
sequence of  an  invitation  given  to  him  by  the  Queen  of  Swe- 
den, in  1649,  he  died  there  in  1650.  It  is  universally  known 
that  the  opinions  taught  by  this  great  man  long  filled  an  im- 
mense space  in  the  philosophical  world. 


Locke,  p.  4. 

John  Locke  was  born  at  Wrington,  near  Bristol,  in  South- 
Britain,  in  the  year  1632.  He  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford,  which  he  entered  in  16  51.     After  leaving 


444  Additional  Notes. 

the  university  he  studied  physic,  and  engaged  for  a  time  in 
the  practice  of  this  profession.  In  1664  he  went  to  Germany, 
as  secretary  to  Sir  William  Swan,  English  envoy  to  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburgh.  In  1 670  he  began  to  form  the 
plan  of  his  Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding,  which  he 
published  in  1690.  He  died  in  1704.  Of  the  vigorous  in- 
tellect, the  profound  and  extensive  views,  the  great  learning, 
and  the  excellent  character  of  this  celebrated  "  master  builder" 
in  science,  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak.  The  above  dates  are 
given  merely  for  the  convenience  of  reference. 


Ei^rors  and  Tendency  of  Locke's  Philosophy,  p.  6. 

While  ample  justice  is  done  to  Mr.  Locke's  genius;  while 
the  splendid  service  which  he  rendered  to  the  philosophy  of 
mind  is  readily  acknowledged;  and  while  his  intentions  are 
allowed  to  have  been  unexceptionably  pure ;  yet  it  may  be 
doubted,  whether  his  writings  have  not  done  more  to  pro- 
mote a  spirit  of  scepticism  than  those  of  any  other  individual 
since  his  time.  This  effect  has  been  produced,  not  only  by 
some  of  his  doctrines,  but  also  by  the  general  spirit  of  his 
philosophy. 

In  tracing  all  our  ideas  to  two  sources,  sensation  and  re-> 
flection,  he  imposed  on  the  mind  of  the  inquirer  by  a  plau- 
sible, but  most  deceitful  appearance  of  simplicity.  It  is  no 
less  true  in  the  philosophy  of  the  mind  than  in  that  of  the 
physical  sciences,  that  attempts  to  simplify  and  generalize  may 
be  carried  not  only  further  than  truth  will  warrant,  but  also 
to  a  seductive  and  mischievous  length.  Mr.  Locke  defines 
reflection  to  be  "  the  notice  which  the  mind  takes  of  its  own 
operations,  and  the  manner  of  them."  This  definition,  be- 
sides being  rather  descriptive  of  consciousness  than  of  rejlec- 
tion,  embraces  a  more  important  error.  -  To  say  that  all  our 
ideas  are  ideas  either  of  sensation  or  reflection,  is  to  say  that 
we  can  think  of  nothing  but  an  object  of  sense,  or  an  act  of 
our  own  minds.  But  is  this  true?  According  to  this  ac- 
count, what  shall  we  say  to  the  various  exercises  of  memory, 
of  imagination,  Sec.  ?  This  philosopher,  also,  in  represent- 
ing ideas,  not  as  thoughts  in  the  mind,  nor  yet  the  external 
objects  of  thought;  but  as  intermediate,  occult  images, 
which  alone  the  mind  contemplates,  gave  countenance  to  a 
principle  from  which  the  most  dangerous  and  absurd  inferences 
have  since  been  made.     The  whole  controversy  about  innate 


Additional  Notes.  445 

ideas,  if  Mr.  Locke  uniformly  employs  this  phrase  in  the  same 
sense,  is  a  war  of  words.  If  an  idea  be  an  object  of  thought 
which  intervenes  between  the  mind  and  the  thing  perceived, 
none  can,  or  ever  did,  suppose  that  ideas  are  innate  in  this  sense. 
To  assert  that  the  mind  has  such  innate  ideas,  would  be  to 
represent  it  as  thinking  before  it  thinks,  and  acting  before  it 
acts. — From  these  and  other  erroneous  principles  taught  by 
this  great  philosopher,  it  soon  became  apparent  that  doctrines 
from  which  he  would  have  shrunk  with  abhorrence  must  ne- 
cessarily result;  and  the  history  of  metaphysical  science  since 
his  time  evinces  how  mischievous  is  en  or,  when  supported 
by  the  authority  of  such  a  mind  as  that  whicii  produced  the 
Essay  on  the  Human  Understanding. 


Hume.  p.  9. 

David  Hume,  the  celebrated  metaphysician  and  historian, 
was  born  in  Edinburgh,  in  the  year  1711.  He  was  designed 
for  the  law  by  his  friends,  but  having  no  inclination  iimself 
to  that  profession,  he  applied  to  business,  and  in  1734  be- 
came a  clerk  to  a  merchant  at  Bristol.  Soon  afterwards  he 
went  to  France,  where  he  wrote  his  Treatise  of Human  Na- 
ture, which  was  published  at  London  in  1139.  Between  this 
period  and  his  death  he  travelled  into  Italy,  Germany,  and 
again  into  France.  His  Moral  Essays  were  published  in 
1 742  ;  his  Political  Discourses,  and  his  Inquiry  concerning 
the  Principles  of  Morals,  in  1752;  his  Natural  History  of 
Religion  in  1756  ;  and  his  History  of  England  was  com- 
pleted in  1761.    He  died  in  1776. 


Ph ilosophy  o/  Hume,  p .  9 . 

Mr.  Hume  taught  that  all  the  perceptions  of  the  human 
mind  resolve  themselves  into  two  classes,  viz.  impressions  and 
ideas;  comprehending  under  the  former  all  our  sensations, 
passions,  and  emotions;  and  under  the  latter  the  feint  images 
of  these,  when  we  remember  or  imagine  them.  Our  ideas, 
in  the  opinion  of  this  philosopher,  are  all  copied  from  our 
impressions,  the  former  differing  from  the  latter  only  in  being 
weaker  perceptions.  "  He  adopted  Locke's  account  of  the 
origin  of  our  ideas,  and  from  that  principle  inferred,  that  we 
have  no  idea  of  substance,  corporeal  or  spiritual;  no  idea  of 


/ 


446  Additional  Notes. 

power;  no  other  idea  of  a  cause,  but  that  it  is  something  ante* 
cedent,  and  constantly  conjoined  to  that  which  we  call  its 
effects ;  in  a  word,  that  we  can  have  no  idea  of  any  thing 
but  our  sensations,  and  the  operations  of  mind  of  which  we  are 
conscious,"  and  that  nothing  else  exists. — Reid's  Essays,  II. 

But  though  Mr.  Hume's  fundamental  doctrines  were  thus 
extravagant  and  absurd;  and  though  his  philosophy,  falsely  so 
called,  leads  to  the  most  unlimited  scepticism,  as  he  doubtless 
intended  it  should;  yet  both  he  and  Bishop  Berkeley  ren- 
dered important  service  to  metaphysical  science.  The  mode 
in  which  they  discussed  their  very  errors  and  absurdities  con- 
tributed to  confer  on  this  branch  of  philosophy  a  perspicuity 
and  precision,  which  are  of  the  utmost  importance  in  study- 
ing the  human  mind. 

On  the  subject  of  causation  Mr.  Hume  has  thrown  new 
light.  Some  of  his  reasonings,  indeed,  on  this  subject,  were 
suggested  by  Malebranche,  and,  even  at  a  still  earlier 
period,  by  Bacon  and  Hobbes.  Ideas,  also,  similar  to  some 
of  those  which  he  advanced,  were  thrown  out  by  Barrow, 
Butler,  Berkeley,  and  others.  But  Mr.  Hume  has  the 
merit  of  having  first  clearly  shown  to  philosophers,  that  our 
common  language,  with  respect  to  cause  and  effect,  is  merely 
analogical ;  and  that,  if  there  be  any  links  among  physical 
events,  they  must  for  ever  remain  invisible  to  us.  Nor  is  the 
justness  of  this  doctrine  to  be  doubted  on  account  of  the 
sceptical  inferences,  which  its  author  has  deduced  from  it :  his 
error,  in  this  case,  does  not  so  much  lie  in  his  premises  as  in 
the  conclusions  which  he  draws  from  them.  In  fact,  if  this 
part  of  his  system  be  admitted ;  and  if,  at  the  same  time,  we 
admit  the  authority  of  that  principle  of  the  mind  which  leads, 
tis  to  refer  every  event  to  an  efficient  cause ;  his  doctrine  con- 
ducts us  to  a  result  more  sublime,  more  favourable  to  piety, 
and  more  consistent  with  sound  philosophy,  than  the  opi- 
nion commonly  held  on  this  subject. — See  Stewart's  Phi- 
losophy of  Mindy  Notes  C  and  D. 


Dr.  Reid.  p.  10.  t 

Thomas  Reid,  D.  D.  was  born  at  Strachan,  in  Kincar- 
dineshire, North-Britain,  April  26,  1710.  He  was  educated 
at  the  University  of  Aberdeen,  and  for  a  number  of  years 
held  the  pastoral  charge  of  the  Congregation  of  New-Machar, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  that  city.    He  was  chosen  Professor 


Additional  Notes.  447 

of  Moral  Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1763. 
His  Inquiry  into  the  Human  Mind  on  the  Principles  of 
Common  Sense,  was  published  in  1764;  his  Essays  on  the. 
Intellectual  Powers  of  Man,  in  1785 ;  and  his  Essays  on  the 
Active  Powers,  in  1738.  He  died  October  7,  1796,  in  the 
87th  year  of  his  age.  Few  men,  since  the  days  of  Locke, 
have  discovered  talents  more  eminently  fitted  to  explore  the 
regions  of  mind  than  this  philosopher. 


Dr.  Retd\s  Philosophy,  p.  11. 

Besides  the  doctrine  of  perception,  stated  in  the  above*. 
mentioned  page,  Dr.  Reid's  system  is  distinguished  by  a 
view  of  the  powers  of  the  mind,  or  of  the  sources  of  our 
ideas,  which  differs  considerably  from  the  systems  of  his  pre- 
decessors. Instead  of  dividing  the  intellectual  powers  into 
simple  apprehension,  judgment  and  reasoning,  as  the  greater 
number  of  metaphysical  writers  have  done  since  the  days  of 
Aristotle,  he  considers  this  division  as  far  from  embracing 
all  the  phenomena  of  mind.  He  does  not,  indeed,  attempt 
a  complete  enumeration  of  all  the  powers  of  the  human  un- 
derstanding; but  supposes  that  there  are  at  least  nine ;  viz. 

1.  The  powers  we  have  by  means  of  our  external  senses. 

2.  Memory.  3.  Conception.  4.  The  powers  of  resolving 
and  analysing  complex  objects,  and  compounding  those  which 
are  more  simple.  5.  Judging.  6.  Reasoning.  7.  Taste. 
8.  Moral  perception.  9.  Consciousness. — Each  of  these  he 
supposes  to  be  an  original  and  distinct  power,  not  resolvable 
into  any  one  or  more  of  the  rest. 

This  may  be  pronounced  an  important  step  in  the  progress 
of  metaphysical  science.  Incalculable  injury  has  been  done 
to  various  branches  of  philosophy  by  injudicious  attempts  to 
reduce  numerous  facts  and  principles  to  one  or  two  classes, 
when  they  do  not  admit  of  such  plausible  simplification,  and 
when  they  can  be  considered  with  advantage  only  in  detail. 
The  progress  of  medical  science  has  been  retarded  by  too  close 
an  adherence  to  systems  of  nosological  arrangement.  Che- 
mical  philosophy  may  also  be  said  to  have  been  disserved  by 
premature  attempts  to  form  a  regular  classification  of  its  phe- 
nomena. Metaphysicians  have  fallen  into  a  similar  mistake. 
One  writer  on  the  "human  mind  tells  us  that  all  its  operations 
may  be  explained  by  referring  them  to  sensation  and  reflection. 
Another  would  derive  all  our  ideas  from  sensation  only ;  while 


448  Additional  Notes. 

a  third  would  account  for  every  intellectual  exercise,  by  ascrib- 
ing them  to  vibrations  of  a  stronger  or  weaker  kind.  Though 
some  of  these  writers  approach  much  nearer  to  the  true  doc- 
trine of  mind  than  others,  they  are  all  erroneous;  and  many 
of  their  mistakes  arise  from  aiming  at  a  simplicity  of  which 
the  subject  does  not  admit.  The  works  of  the  Author  of 
Nature  can  be  contemplated  by  us  only  in  detail:  and  the  pro- 
cess of  generalization,  though  always  pleasing  to  human  prid°, 
and  sometimes,  in  a  degree,  just  and  useful;  yet,  when  car- 
ried beyond  a  certain  length,  is,  doubtless,  calculated  to  de- 
ceive the  inquirer,  and  to  countenance  the  most  mischievous 
errors. 

Dr.  Re  id  was  enabled  to  present  the  improved  views  of 
the  science  of  mind,  which  his  works  contain,  by  pursuing  a 
method  of  inquiry  which  he  first  applied  to  this  subject.  The 
inductive  plan  of  investigation,  recommended  by  Bacon,  had 
been  long  before  applied  to  the  physical  sciences ;  and  a  few 
writers,  from  the  beginning  till  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  had  suggested  the  propriety  of  attempting  to  explore, 
on  similar  principles,  the  phenomena  of  the  intellectual  world. 
But  Dr.  Re  id  is  asserted  to  have  been  the  first  person  "  who 
conceived  justly  and  clearly  the  analogy  between  these  two 
different  branches  of  human  knowledge;  defining  with  pre- 
cision the  distinct  provinces  of  Observation  and  of  Reflection, 
in  furnishing  the  data  of  all  our  reasonings  concerning  Mat- 
ter and  Mind;  and  demonstrating  the  necessity  of  a  careful 
separation  between  the  phenomena  which  they  respectively 
exhibit,  while  we  adhere  to  the  same  mode  of  philosophizing 
in  investigating  the  laws  of  each." — Stewart's  Life  of 
Reid,  p.  48. 


Dr.  Reid's  Use  of  the  Phrase  Common  Sense,  p.  12. 

"  One  of  the  first  writers  who  introduced  the  phrase  Com- 
mon Sense  into  the  technical  or  appropriate  language  of  Lo- 
gic, was  Father  Buffier,  in  a  book,  entitled,  Traite  des 
Premieres  Verites.  It  has  since  been  adopted  by  several  au- 
thors of  note  in  Great-Britain,  particularly  by  Dr.  Reid,  Dr. 
Oswald,  and  Dr.  Beattie;  by  all  of  whom,  however,  I 
am  afraid,  it  must  be  confessed,  it  has  been  employed  without 
a  due  attention  to  precision.  The  last  of  these  writers  uses 
it  to  denote  that  power  by  which  the  mind  perceives  the  truth 
of  any  intuitive  proposition,  whether*  it  be  an  axiom  of  ab- 


Additional  Notes.  449 

stract  science,  01  a  statement  of  some  fact  resting  on  the  im- 
mediate information  of  consciousness,  of  perception,  or  of  me- 
mory ;  or  one  of  those  fundamental  laws  of  belief  which  are  im- 
plied in  the  application  of  our  faculties  to  the  ordinary  business 
of  life.  The  same  extensive  use  of  the  word  may,  I  believe,  be 
found  in  the  other  authors  just  mentioned.  But  no  authority 
can  justify  such  a  laxity  in  the  employment  of  language  in  phi- 
losophical discussions:  for  if  mathematical  axioms  be  (as  they 
manifestly  and  indisputably  are)  a  class  of  propositions  essen- 
tially distinct  from  the  other  kinds  of  intuitive  truths  now  de- 
scribed, why  refer  them  all  indiscriminately  to  the  same  prin- 
ciple in  our  constitution?  If  this  phrase,  therefore,  be  at  ail 
retained,  precision  requires  that  it  should  he  employed  in  a 
more  limited  acceptation;  and  accordingly,  in  the  works  un- 
der our  consideration,  it  is  appropriated  most  frequently^ 
though  by  no  means  uniformly,  to  that  class  of  intuitive 
truths  which  I  have  already  called  fundamental  laws  of  be- 
lief. When  thus  restricted,  it  conveys  a  notion  unambiguous 
at  least,  and  definite;  and,  consequently,  the  question  about 
its  propriety  and  impropriety  turns  entirely  on  the  coincidence 
of  this  definition  with  the  meaning  of  the  word  as  employed 
in  ordinary  discourse." 

"  I  have  said  that  the  question  about  the  propriety  of  the 
phrase  Common  Sense,  as  employed  by  philosophers,  must 
be  decided  by  an  appeal  to  general  practice:  for  although  it 
he  allowable,  and  even  necessary,  for  a  philosopher  to  limit 
the  acceptation  of  words  which  are  employed  vaguely  in  com- 
mon discourse,  it  is  always  dangerous  to  give  to  a  word  a 
scientific  meaning  essentially  different  from  that  in  which  it  is 
usually  understood.  It  has,  at  least,  the  effect 'of  misleading 
those  who  clo  not  enter  deeply  into  the  subject;  and  of  giving 
a  paradoxical  appearance  to  doctrines  which,  if  expressed  in 
more  unexceptionable  terms,  would  be  readily  admitted." 

"  It  appears  to  me  that  this  has  actually  happened  in  the  pre- 
sent instance.  The  phrase  Common  Sense,  as  it  is  generally 
understood,  is  nearly  synonymous  with  Mother-wit ;  denot- 
ing that  degree  of  sagacity  (depending  partly  on  original  ca- 
pacity, and  partly  on  personal  experience  and  observation) 
which  qualifies  an  individual  for  those  simple  and  essential 
occupations  which  all  men  are  called  oji  to  exercise  habitually 
by  their  common  nature.  In  this  acceptation  it  is  opposed  to 
those  mental  acquirements  which  are  derived  from  a  regular 
education,  and  from  the  study  of  books;  and  refers  not  to 
the  speculative  convictions  of  the  understanding,  but  to  than 

3-M 


450  Additional  Notes. 

prudence  and  discretion  which  are  the  foundation  of  success- 
ful conduct.  Such  is  the  idea  which  Pope  annexes  to  the 
word,  when,  speaking  of  good  sense,  (which  means  only  a 
more  than  ordinary  share  of  common  sense)  he  calls  it 

"  The  gift  of  Heaven, 
And  though  no  science,  fairly  worth  the  seven." 

"  To  speak,  accordingly,  of  appealing  from  the  conclu- 
sions of  philosophy  to  common  sense,  had  the  appearance,  to 
title-page  readers,  of  appealing  from  the  verdict  of  the  learned 
to  the  voice  of  the  multitude;  or  of  attempting  to  silence  free 
discussion,  by  a  reference  to  some  arbitrary  and  undeftnable 
standard,  distinct  from  any  of  the  intellectual  powers  hitherto 
enumerated  by  logicians.  Whatever  countenance  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  been  given  by  some  writers  to  such  an  inter- 
pretation of  this  doctrine,  I  may  venture  to  assert,  that  none 
is  afforded  by  the  works  of  Dr.  Reid.  The  standard  to 
which  he  appeals  is  neither  the  creed  of  a  particular  sect,  nor 
the  inward  light  of  enthusiastic  presumption  ;  but  that  con- 
stitution of  human  nature  without  which  all  the  business  of 
the  world  would  immediately  cease;  and  the  substance  of 
his  argument  amounts  merely  to  this — that  those  essential 
laws  of  belief  to  which  sceptics  have  objected,  when  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  our  scientific  reasonings,  are  im- 
plied in  every  step  we  take  as  active  beings;  and,  if  called  in 
question  by  any  man  in  his  practical  concerns,  would  expose 
him  universally  to  the  charge  of  insanity." — Stewart'^  Life 
of  Reid,  p.  118—120. 

Leibnitz,  p.  14. 

Godfred  William  Leibnitz  was  born  at  Leipsic,  irf 
Saxony,  in  the  year  1646.  He  was  a  prodigy  of  learning, 
had  an  astonishing  memory,  and  possessed  great  vigour  and 
versatility  of  talents.  His  works  are  very  voluminous.  His 
doctrines  concerning  the  mind  may  be  gathered  from  his 
Theodicea,  published  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  system  of  philosophy  taught  in  this  work  was 
designed  partly  in  emendation  of  the  Cartesian,  and  partly  in 
opposition  to  the  Newtonian.  Leibnitz  retained  the  subtle 
matter,  the  universal  plenitude,  and  the  vortices  of  Des- 
Cartes,  but  differed  in  some  respects  from  that  philosopher. 
But  against  Sir  Isaac  Newton  his  scientific  warfare  was 
principally  directed. — He  died  in  the  year  17 16. 


Additional  Notes.  451 

Wolfe,  p.  17. 

Christian  Wolfe,  a  native  of  Breslau,  in  Germany, 
was  born  in  the  year  1 679.  He  was  a  follower  of  Leibnitz,, 
and  wrote  largely  in  defence  of  his  philosophical  opinions. 
At  the  age  of  26  Wolfe  had  acquired  so  much  reputation 
7is  to  be  appointed  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  University 
of  Halle,  and  soon  afterwards  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  ge- 
neral in  the  same  institution.  His  famous  work,  entitled, 
Thoughts  on  God,  the  World,  and  the  Human  Soul,  in  which 
his  metaphysical  doctrines  are  delivered,  was  published  in 
1719.  Accused  of  heresy,  on  account  of  his  holding  the 
doctrine  of  necessity,  and  some  other  obnoxious  opinions,  he 
was  banished  from  the  Prussian  dominions  in  1723.  For  a 
number  of  years  after  this  event  Germany  was  filled  with  dis- 
putes concerning  his  opinions,  and  the  treatment  which  he  had 
received;  and  the  names  of  Woljians  and  A nti-Woljians  were 
every  where  heard.  In  1732,  the  current  of  public  opinion 
turning  in  his  favour,  he  was  recalled  from  his  exile,  and  ap- 
pointed Vice-Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Halle.  In  1745 
he  was  raised  to  the  office  of  Chancellor  of  the  University, 
and  created  a  Baron,  by  the  Elector  of  Bavaria. — He  died  in- 
3754. 


Stahl\s  Doctrine  concerning  the  Mind.  p.  17. 

Contemporary  with  Wolfe  was  the  celebrated  George 
Ernest  Stahl,  Professor  of  Medicine  in  the  University  of 
Halle.  He  was  distinguished  not  so  much  by  any  new  doc- 
trine concerning  the  nature  and  powers  of  the  mind  (for  it 
is  even  uncertain  what  were  the  opinions  which  he  held 
on  this  subject),  as  by  entertaining  the  singular  idea,  that  the 
soul  presides  over,  and  governs  the  whole  economy  of  the 
body,  both  in  health  and  disease.  To  the  will  he  referred  ail 
the  vital  functions,  and  contended,  that  if  there  be  instances 
in  which  we  will  an  effect,  without  being  able  to  make  ic  an 
object  of  attention,  it  is  possible  that  what  we  call  vital  and 
involuntary  motions  may  be  the  consequences  of  our  own 
thought  and  volition.  He  supposed  that  the  influence  of  the 
soul  is  extended  to  every  part  of  the  system  by  means  of  the 
nerves ;  and  that,  when  their  action  is  impeded  or  deranged, 
disease  is  the  unavoidable  consequence.     These  opinions  oC 


452  Additional  Notes. 

Stahl  were  adopted,  particularly  by  a  number  of  medical 
philosophers  in  different  nans  of  Europe;  but  at  the  close  or 
the  century  there  were  few  or  none  who  professed  an  ad- 
herence to  them. 

Hartley's  Phitasapky.  p.  17. 

It  is  asserted,  in  the  above-mentioned  page,  that  Dr.  Hart- 
ley derived  his  doc  trine  of  -vibration  from  Newton.  The 
truth  is,  that  Dr.1  Willi  am  Briggs,  who  instructed  New- 
ton in  anatomy,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who  taught 
the  doctrine  of  nervous  vibrations.  This  he  did  in  his  Nova 
Fisionis  Theoria,  published  in  1632.  Newton,  taking  the 
idea  from  him,,  suggests  it,  not  as  a  fixed  opinion,  but  as  a 
modest  query  (see  23d  query,  subjoined  to  his  Optics),  whe- 
ther Cl  vision  is  effected  chiefly  by  the  vibrations  of  an  elastic 
medium,  excited  in  the  bottom  of  the  eve  by  the  rays  of 
light,  and  propagated  along  the  solid,  pellucid,  and  uniform 
oapillaments  of  the  optic  nerve?  And  whether  hearing  is 
effected  by  the  vibrations  of  the  same  or  of  some  other  me- 
dium, excited  by  the  tremor  of  the  air  in  the  auditory  nerves, 
and  propagated  along  the  solid,  pellucid,  and  uniform  capilla- 
ments of  those  nerves  r"  And  so  with  regard  to  the  other 
senses.  Wnat  was  thus  suggested  by  Newton  became  a 
fundamental  principle  in  Hartley's  system,  and  has  been 
considered  by  him  and  his  followers  as.  placed  on  the  high 
ground  of  demonstration. 


Kant\s  Philosophy. 

Immanuel  Kant  was  born  in  1724,  anil  is  still  living. 
His  philosophy  has  excited  almost  as  much  attention  as  that 
of  Wolfe  did  eightv  years  ago,  and  has  called  forth  the  ta- 
lents of  many  of  the  most  eminent  men  of  Germany,  for 
and  against  it.  Besides  those  who  have  been  already  men- 
tioned as  distinguished  parti zans  in  this  controversy,  there  are 
some  others  worthy  of  notice.  Joh.  Gotth.  Fuhte,  of 
Jena;  Professor  Born,  of  Leipsic;  Professor  Beck,  of  Ro- 
stock; and  the  Rev.  Geo.  Sam.  Mellin,  of  Magdeburg, 
have  written  largely  and  ably  in  defence  of  the  Kantian  doc- 
trine; while  Feder,  Eberhard,  Professor  Tiedemann, 
and  Professor  Ma  as,  have  been  equally  conspicuous,  zealous 
and  able  in  opposition  to  this  far-famed  system. 


Additional  Notes.  458 

Helvetius.  p.  28. 

Claude  Adrian  Helvetius  was  hern  In  Paris,  in  the 
year  1715.  In  the  year  1/758  he  produced  his  first  work, 
entitled,  V Esprit,  which,  on  account  of  its  atheistical  prin- 
ciples, was  condemned  by  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  The 
odium  which  he  incurred  hereby  induced  him  to  visit  Eng- 
land in  17G4,  and  from  thence  he  went  to  Prussia,  where  he 
was  very  favourably  received  by  the  king.  On  his  return  to 
France  he  led  a  retired  life  in  the  country,  and  died  in  1771. 
His  treatise  on  Man,  formed  on  the  same  principles  with  his 
first  work,  was  published  a  short  time  before  his  death.  He 
wrote  a  poem,  in  six  cantos,  entitled,  Le  Bonheur,  which 
was  published  in  1772.  Helvetius  may  be  regarded  as  one 
of  the  earliest  and  mat  conspicuous  of  the  advocates  for  that 
system  of  materialism,  and  of  atheistical  reveries,  usually 
called  the  new  philosophy. 

Edwards,  p.  30. 

An  ingenious  and  learned  friend,  on  reading  the  assertion, 
in  the  above-mentioned  page,  that  "  President  Edwards  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  first  Cahinist  who  avowed  his  belief 
so  fully  and  thoroughly  in  the  doctrine  of  moral  necessity  as 
his  book  indicates,"  made  the  following  remarks: 

"  You  have  mistaken  the  fact  with  reference  to  President 
Edwards.  His  .great  mind  was,  indeed,  nobly  exercised  in 
the  defence  of  truth.  He -appears  an  original  in  the  inven- 
tion of  arguments  against  his  adversaries,  but  not  in  discover- 
ing the  truths  which  he  states  respecting  the  liberty  of  the 
Will.  The  connection  between  motives  and  volitions,  the 
liberty  of  choice  in  man,  and  the  necessity  of  the  futurition 
of  human  voluntary  actions ;  in  short,  every  part  of  moral 
necessity  consistent  with  free  agency,  was  embraced  and  un- 
derstood before  his  dav,  although  not  so  successfully  demon- 
strated as  by  him.  You  should  have  taken  notice  of  his 
son,  Jonathan  Edwards,.  D.  D.  late  President  of  Union 
College,  in  Schenectady.  He  was  an  able  metaphysician. 
Few  works  in  the  English  language  discover  more  penetration 
than  his  book  on  the  Liberty  of  the  Witt" 

On  the  reputation  of  these  two  American  divines,  the  cha- 
.  racier  of  our  country,  with  respect  to  ntecaph  ysical  science, 


454  Additional  Notes. 

may  honourably  rest.  The  father,  considering  the  circum- 
stances in  which  he  was  educated  and  spent  his  life,  was  truly 
a  prodigy  of  talents.  For  aciueness  and  extent  of  compre- 
hension, and  fervour  of  piety,  he  has  had  but  few  equals  be- 
longing to  any  age.  The  son  very  much  resembled  his  fa- 
ther, in  talents,  in  piety,  and  in  the  circumstances  of  his  life. 

Materialism,  p.  31. 

The  same  friend  who  was  mentioned  in  the  preceding  note, 
communicated  the  following  remarks  on  the  subject  of  Ma- 
terialism, which  I  cannot  deny  myself  the  pleasure  of  insert- 
ing at  length  in  this  place. 

"  Numerous  are  the  advocates  of  die  material  system.  In 
order  to  enforce  our  belief  in  its  doctrines,  conjecture  and  in- 
genuity have  done  their  best.  And,  after  all,  great  must  be 
the  faith,  or  rather  the  credulity,  of  those  who  can  believe  it. 

"  If  we  are  to  account  for  all  the  varieties  of  thought 
tipon  mechanical  principles,  ic  will  be  necessary  to  consider 
the  subject  in  the  light  of  known  mechanical  laws.  Whe- 
ther we  adopt  the  hypothesis  that  the  nerves  are  like  fiddle- 
strings,  or  that  they  are  full  of  a  medullary  substance  capable 
of  vibrations,  the  fundamental  principle  of  materialism  is  one. 
*  The  vibrations  of  matter  produce  thought.' — On  this  theory 
it  may  be  observed — 

"  1.  It  never  has  been  proved  that  there  are  such  vibra- 
tions. It  is  a  mere  hypothesis.  It  may  serve  for  specula- 
tion; but  to  built  a  system  on  such  a  basis  is  credulity,  not 
philosophy. 

"  2.  Granting,  for  argument's  sake,  the  existence  of  vi- 
brations, there  is  no  necessary  connection  between  vibration 
and  though!:.  If  there  is  not,  there  must  be  another  hy- 
pothesis introduced,  viz.  *  There  viay  be  a  connection  be- 
tween vibrations  and  thought.'  Upon  this  hypothesis  I  should 
be  glad  to  see  Dr.  Priestley  or  Dr.  Darwin  give  us  a 
poem  or  dissertation  upon  the  thoughts  of  the  Harpsichord 
while  the  strings  are  vibrating  at  the  touch  of  a  lady's  finger; 
or  upon  the  grave  speculations  of  a  mill-pond  while  the  boys 
at  play  are  throwing  stones  into  it. 

"  3.  Suppose  I  again  grant,  for  further  argument's  sake, 
this  hypothesis  to  the  materialists.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
show  that,  in  vibrations,  considered  abstractedly,  there  is  such 
a  variety  in  kind  and  degree  as  corresponds  exactly  with  all 
the  varieties  of  thought. 


Additional  Notes.  455 

M  There  are  at  least  ten  distinct  intellectual  powers.  NoC 
one  of  these  can  be  accounted  for  by  one  or  more  of  the 
others.  There  are,  1.  The  powers  which  we  have  by  means 
of  our  five  senses.  2.  Attention.  3.  Memory.  4.  Abstrac- 
tion. 5.  Judging.  6.  Reasoning.  1.  Taste.  8.  Powers  of 
moral  perception.  9.  Consciousness.  10.  Conception.  Each 
of  these  is  distinct,  and  a  distinct  source  of  ideas.  The  active 
powers,  moreover,  arc  numerous;  and  the  mind,  so  consti- 
tuted, is  capable  of  a  vast  variety  of  thoughts,  differing  in 
kind  and  degree.  Do  vibrations  afford  an  equal  variety?  No: 
it  is  not  possible  that  there  should  be  any  more  than  two  kinds 
of  vibrations  in  a  uniform  elastic  medium.  1.  They  may  be 
quick  or  slow.  2.  They  maybe  strong  or  weak.  These 
kinds  admit  of  various  degrees;  and  this  is  all  the  variety  of 
which  the  laws  of  matter  (however  finely  organized  the  ma- 
chine) will  admit.  Now,  he  must  certainly  be  ignorant  of 
his  own  mental  operations,  or  of  the  laws  of  motion  in  mat- 
ter, who  can  be  persuaded  of  an  exact  correspondence  of  the 
one  to  the  other.  Certainly  credulity  never  appeared  more 
conspicuous  in  the  devotees  of  Popish  superstition  than  it 
does  in  the  advocates  and  believers  of  the  material  system ! 

"  Shall  vibrations  in  an  elastic  medium  be  supposed  to  ac- 
count for  all  the  original  powers,  intellectual  and  active?  Put 
all  these  out  of  the  question  except;  one  class,  viz.  the  powers 
we  have  by  our  external  senses,  and  even  then  there  is  a  ma- 
nifest disparity.  Had  we  no  sensations  but  those  of  hearing , 
this  theory  would  not  be  so  contemptible.  There  is  a  cor- 
respondence between  vibrations  and  sound.  These  sensations 
will  themselves  appropriate  all  the  varieties  of  vibrations;  and 
even  then  it  will  be  necessary  to  conceive  of  some  sentient 
being,  capable  of  those  sensations,  distinct  from  all  the  vi- 
brations which  produce  them. 

"  Hearing,  however,  is  but  one  of  our  senses;  and  its  sen- 
sations are  the  most  simple:  they  differ  only  in  degree.  By 
each  of  the  other  four  we  have  a  variety  of  sensations  which 
differ  specifically  as  well  as  in  degree.  Who  can  name  the 
varieties  of  colour  which  we  perceive  by  the  eye?  Tastes  and 
smells  are  innumerable.  They  differ  specifically,  and  each 
is  capable  of  all  degrees  of  strength  and  weakness.  But  how 
shah  we  find  in  vibrations  a  variety  corresponding  to  the  im- 
mense variety  of  sensations  which  we  have  from  sight,  hear- 
ing, taste,  smell,  and  touch?  And  how  shall  they  account 
for  all  the  ideas  which  we  have  from  all  the  other  sources 
and  powers  of  thought,  upon  mechanical  principles?     Com- 


456  Additional  Notes. 

mon  sense,  reason  and  philosophy,  are  in  a  lamentable  con- 
dition when  such  theories  gain  ground  among  men.  He  who 
would  be  a  materialist  in  the  nineteenth  century,  would  have 
been  a  believer  in  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  in  the 
twelfth.* 


Modern  Materialists,  p.  33. 

The  principal  materialists  of  the  eighteenth  century  dif- 
fered, in  some  of  the  details  of  their  opinions,  from  those 
philosophers  of  preceding  rimes  who  held  the  same  gene- 
ral doctrine.  Epicurus  supposed  the  soul  of  man  to  be  a 
material  substance,  but  a  very  refined  and  attenuated  kind  of 
matter.  He  taught  that  this  substance,  notwithstanding  the 
extreme  subtlety  of  its  texture,  is  composed  of  four  distinct 
parts ;  fire,  which  causes  animal  heat  •  an  ethereal  principle, 
which  is  moist  vapour;  air ;  and  a  fourth  principle,  which 
is  the  cause  of  sensation.  This  sentient  principle  he  supposed 
to  differ  essentially  from  the  three  former,  but  to  be,  like  the 
rest,  corporeal,  because  it  is  capable  both  of  acting  and  being 
acted  upon  by  bodies.  From  the  union  of  the  soul,  thus 
constituted,  with  the  body,  he  believed  life  and  sensation  to 
result.  Something  like  this  seems  to  have  been  the  opinion 
of  almost  all  the  ancient  materialists.  Spinoza  and  Hobbes 
held  a  system  of  materialism  quite  as  gross  as  any  of  their 
predecessors;  for  they  seem  to  have  thought  that  every  ma- 
terial atom  is,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  animated  or  en- 
dowed with  sensation.  Dr.  Hartley  (if  he  be  ranked  in 
this  class,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  give  him  any  other  place) 
sometimes  appears  to  recognize  a  sentient  principle,  which,  if 
not  wholly  immaterial,  differs  from  any  ideas  which  he  seems 
to  have  formed  of  ordinary  matter.  Dr.  Priestley's  opi- 
nions on  this  subject,  considered  as  a  connected  system,  are 
new.  He  denies  that  there  is  any  ground  for  making  a  dis- 
tinction between  the  soul  of  man  and  the  body ;  supposing 
the  whole  human  constitution  to  be  made  up  of  one  homo- 
geneous substance.  He  denies  that  we  have  any  evidence  that 
the  Deity  himself  is  immaterial,  in  die  commonly  received 
sense  of  this  word;  and,  finally,  by  the  adoption  of  Father 
Boscovich's  theory,  he  so  refines  and  spiritualizes  matter, 
as  to  make  it  an  extremely  different  thing  from  that  gross  and 
impenetrable  substance  which  it  is  generally  represented  to  be. 
He  differs  from  preceding  materialists,  then,  in*  his  views  of 


o 


Additional  Notes.  457 

the  nature  of  matter,  and  in  rejecting  the  idea  entertained  by 
most  of  them,  that  the  sentient  principle  is  a  species  of  matter 
peculiarly  refined  and  attenuated. 

Dr.  Darwin,  in  his  celebrated  work,  entitled  Zoonomia, 
has  offered  a  physiological  theory  of  mind,  which,  though 
more  seductive,  and,  consequently,  more  dangerous  than  some 
others,  may  be  said  to  contain  more  crude  and  inconsistent 
metaphysics  than  almost  any  modern  system  of  materialism 
of  equal  reputation.  The  greater  part  of  his  opinions 
on  this  subject  have  been  borrowed  from  other  writers; 
so  that,  as  a  pneumatologist,  he  has  little  claim  to  originality, 
excepting  in  the  method  of  combining  and  arranging  his  doc- 
trines. The  genius  of  the  author,  indeed,  has  given  to  his 
metaphysical  errors  a  popular  and  plausible  aspect;  and  they 
will  probably  lead  astray  thousands  of  superficial  and  incon- 
siderate readers;  but  they  can  scarcely  mislead  inquirers  of  a 
more  discerning  character. 

Dr.  Darwin  supposes  that  the  sentient  principle,  or  the 
mind  of  man,  is  a  subtle  fluids  which  he  denominates  Sen- 
sorial Power,  or  spirit  of  animation.  This  Sensorial  Power 
he  represents  as  secreted  in  the  biain,  and  in  the  medullary 
part  of  the  nerves,  where  it  especially  resides,  and  from  which. 
it  extends  to  every  part  of  the  body,  without  being  cognizable 
by  our  senses,  except  in  its  effects.  He  supposes  that  the 
oxygen  which  enters  into  combination  with  the  blood  in  re- 
spiration, affords  the  material  for  the  production  of  Sensorial 
Power;  that  this  fluid  is  liable  to  be  accumulated  or  diminished 
by  various  circumstances;  that  it  is  constantly  expended  by 
stimuli,  and  is  probably  too  fine  to  be  long  retained  in  the 
nerves  after  its  production  in  the  brain;  and,  finally,  that  it 
is  capable  of  assuming  the  property  of  solidity,  or  divesting 
itself  of  this  property  at  pleasure. 

This  Spirit  of  animation,  or  Sensorial  Power,  according  to 
the  theory  under  review,  produces  contractions  or  motions  in 
the  animal  fibre,  and  these  fibrous  motions,  thus  occasioned, 
are  the  immediate  cause  of  all  our  ideas;  an  idea  being  de- 
fined "  a  contraction,  or  motion,  or  configuration  of  the  im- 
mediate organs  of  sense."  This  Spirit  has  Jour  different  modes 
of  action ;  or,  in  other  words,  the  mind  possesses  Jour  dif- 
ferent faculties,  which  are  occasionally  exerted,  and  cause  all 
the  contractions  of  the  fibrous  parts  of  the  body.  These 
are,  1.  The  faculty  of  causing  fibrous  contractions  in  con- 
sequence of  the  irritations  excited  by  external  bodies.  2. 
The  faculty  of  causing  Contractions  in  consequence  of  the 

3N 


458  Additional  Notts. 

sensations  of  pleasure  or  pain.  3.  The  faculty  of  causing 
contractions  in  consequence  of  volition.  4.  The  faculty 
of  causing  contractions  in  consequence  of  the  associations 
of  fibrous  contractions  with  other  fibrous  contractions, 
which  precede  or  accompany  them.  These  four  faculties, 
during  their  inactive  state,  are  termed  irritability,  sensibility, 
voluntarity,  and  associability ; .  in  their  active  state  they  are 
termed  irritation,  seyisation,  volition,  and  association.  (See 
chap.  iv.  of  this  work.)  Upon  these  principles  Dr.  Darwin 
accounts  for  all  the  phenomena  of  mind.  Memory,  accord- 
ing to  this  author,  embraces  a  class  of  ideas  arising  from  vo- 
lition and  association.  Imagination  includes  those  ideas  which 
were  originally  excited  by  irritation,  and  become,  in  like 
manner,  more  frequently  causable  by  sensations  of  pleasure  or 
pain.  Ideas  of  Abstraction  and  of  Reflection  are  partial  re- 
petitions of  former  perceptions,  by  the  repetition  of  a  certain 
stimulus.  (See  Zoonomia,  vol.  i.  §  5,  6,  14,  15.) — It  will 
readily  be  perceived  that  this  theory  of  mind  has  not  only  all 
the  exceptionable  characteristics  of  that  of  Dr.  Hartley, 
but  that  it  is  liable  to  the  additional  charges  of  being  more 
complex  and  less  consistent. 

As  this  theory  makes  an  important  part  of  a  medical  work, 
which  is  highly  popular,  and  has  an  extensive  circulation  in  the 
United  States;  and  as  there  is  reason  to  suppose  that  many 
superficial  thinkers  have  been  seduced  into  the  adoption  of  its 
principles  by  the  plausible  aspect  which  it  wears,  the  follow- 
ing remarks  are  respectfully  submitted  to  the  reader,  not  as 
containing  a  full  refutation  of  the  Darwinian  doctrines,  but 
as  suggesting  some  hints  worthy  of  the  consideration  of  those 
who  are  disposed  to  embrace  them. 

1 .  Dr.  Darwin  sets  out  with  a  singular  inconsistency. 
He  declares  that,  by  the  Spirit  of  Animation,  or  Sensorial 
Power,  he  means  only  that  animal  life  which  mankind  possess 
in  common  with  brutes,  and,  in  some  degree,  even  with  ve- 
getables ;  and  that  he  leaves  the  consideration  of  the  immortal 
part  of  us,  which  is  the  object  of  religion,  to  those  who 
treat  of  revelation.  Yet  he  afterwards  proceeds,  in  the  same 
work,  to  show  how  the  Sensorial  Power  produces  ideas  of 
memory,  imagination,  abstraction,  &c.  which  have  always 
been  considered  as  belonging  to  the  rational  and  immortal 
mind  of  man,  by  all  who  believe  that  such  mind  exists.  Does 
Dr.  Darwin  mean  to  express  an  opinion  that  man  possesses 
the  noble  powers  of  reasoning,  judgment,  imagination,  ab- 


Additional  Notes.  459 

^traction,  memory,  reflection,  &:c.  in  common  with  brutes? 
or  does  he  suppose  that  the  soul,  the  immortal  part,  possesses 
intellectual  powers  of  a  different  kind  ? 

2.  It  may  be  observed  that  this  theory  embraces  a  general 
doctrine,  which  is  gratuitously  assumed,  and  is  altogether  un- 
philosophical.  Its  object  is  to  reduce  all  the  energies  of  in- 
tellectual and  animal  life  to  the  operation  of  an  invisible  fluid 
secreted  by  the  brain,  and  existing  in  every  part  of  the  body. 
But  does  this  fluid  exist?  It  is  surely  unphilosophical  to  take 
for  granted  the  existence  of  a  substance,  and  then  to  proceed, 
on  the  supposition,  to  a  long  train  of  inferences,  the  validity 
of  which  must  all  rest  on  the  first  assumption.  Besides,  this 
supposed  fluid  gives  no  real  aid  to  the  inquirer  when  admitted. 
It  explains  nothing.  The  whole  business  of  causation  is  as 
much  in  the  dark,  after  all  this  parade  of  developement,  as  ever. 
Unwilling  to  confess  himself  ignorant  of  any  thing,  Dr.  Dar- 
win endeavours  to  amuse  his  own  mind,  and  the  minds  of  his 
readers,  with  contractions,  fibrous  motions,  appetencies,  and 
other  apologies  for  ignorance.  But  these  words  convey  no  dis- 
tinct ideas  to  the  mind ;  they  enable  us  to  make  no  real  pro- 
gress in  the  investigation  of  truth.  In  this  writer's  philoso- 
phical works  the  poet  too  often  appears  with  all  his  parade 
of  fictions.  Suppositions  are  assumed  for  facts;  conjec- 
ture is  brought  in  aid  of  hypothesis  ;  and  from  these  ma- 
terials, with  all  the  formality  of  legitimate  deduction,  a 
system  is  formed.  But  when  the  good  old  rule  of  philo- 
sophizing— (<  The  causes  must  be  both  true  and  sufficient  to 
explain  the  phenomena" — is  rigidly  applied,  many  of  his  most 
important  postulates  are  found  either  utterly  inadmissible,  or 
to  possess,  if  admitted,  only  a  fictitious  value.  The  sensorial 
power  of  this  ingenious  theorist,  as  applied  to  explain  the  phe- 
nomena of  mind,  too  much  resembles  the  occult  qualities,  the 
■phantasms,  and  the  essential  forms  of  the  schoolmen,  to  be 
respectfully  viewed  by  a  practical  philosopher. 

3.  Several  of  the  doctrines  which  enter  into  this  theory  are 
not  consistent  with  themselves.  Dr.  Darwin  sometimes 
uses  the  word  idea  to  signify  the  organic  affection,  and  some- 
times the  mental  affection ;  or,  to  use  his  own  language,  it 
sometimes  denotes  the  jibrous  motion,  and  at  others  the  sen- 
sorial motion;  that  is,  it  signifies  both  the  cause  and  the 
effect.  This  inaccurate  use  of  an  important  metaphysical 
word  is  the  source  of  much  loose,  perplexed,  and  inconsistent 
reasoning. 

Again;  the  spirit  of  animation  is  said  to  have  the  powev 


460  Additional  Notes. 

of  producing  certain  motions  in  the  animal  fibre.  But  if  the 
power  of  producing  fibrous  contractions  be  inherent  in  this 
spirit  (and  such  self-operating  power  is  certainly  sometimes 
ascribed  by  Dr.  Darwin  to  the  Spirit  of  Animation,  espe- 
cially in  cases  of  memory,  &rc),  then  that  portion  of  it  which 
is  in  immediate  contact  with  the  fibre  must  induce  contraction 
before  the  application  of  stimuli,  unless  the  power  be  counter- 
acted. But,  in  this  case,  nothing  is  supposed  to  counteract  its 
action ;  and  as  the  effect  is  not  produced,  where  is  the  inhe- 
rent power  of  this  subtle  fluid  ?  If  we  say  that  the  sensorium 
does  not  essentially  possess  the  power,  but  excites  motions  of 
the  fibres  merely  by  its  own  motion,  we  subject  the  pheno- 
mena of  life  and  mind  to  the  principles  of  mechanics;  but  it  is 
admitted  by  Dr.  Darwin  that  the  effects  bear  no  mechanical 
proportion  to  their  causes. 

Further,  Dr.  Darwin  contends  that  fibrous  motions  con- 
stitute our  notions  or  ideas  of  the  qualities  of  external  things. 
To  illustrate  this  an  argument  is  drawn  from  the  luminous 
appearance  in  the  eye,  when  it  is  struck  in  the  dark,  or  when 
a  corner  of  the  ball  is  pressed.  This  effect,  he  supposes, 
is  occasioned  not  by  the  presence  of  light,  but  by  mere  pres- 
sure; a  supposition  which,  if  admitted,  must  set  aside  his 
theory  of  ideas.  The  Sensorial  Power  in  the  eye  has  the 
same  susceptibilities  as  that  in  the  nerves  of  touch,  and  the 
fibres  of  both  organs  are  equally  contractile.  They  differ 
only  in  the  yneans  of  irritation ;  the  structure  of  the  external 
organ  of  the  one  being  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  transmission 
of  light.  But  if  pressure  can  excite  the  sensation  of  a  flash, 
this  stimulus  is  not,  like  that  of  light,  confined  to  the  eye. 
It  must  excite  similar  fibrous  motions  of  the  rete  mucosum, 
and  the  sense  of  touch  will  thus  become  a  medium  of  vision. 
But  this,  though  an  unavoidable  inference  from  Dr.  Dar- 
win's principles,  is  contrary  to  his  conclusions. 

Another  gross  inconsistency  appears  in  the  account  which 
this  theorist  presents  of  the  qualities  belonging  to  Sensorial 
Power.  To  say  that  a  substance  can  assume  the  property  of 
solidity,  and  lay  it  aside;  that  it  can  occupy  space,  and  cease 
to  occupy  it  at  pleasure,  is  to  say  that  it  can,  at  pleasure, 
exist,  and  cease  to  exist.  The  Sensorial  Power  is  constantly 
represented  as  a  material  substance,  at  sometimes  solid  and 
impenetrable,  and  at  other  times  not  so.  Now,  if  solidity  be- 
long to  matter  at  all,  it  must  be  essential  to  it  under  every  va- 
riation of  form,  and  can  only  cease  to  exist  in  the  destruction 
of  the  substance.    But  this  is  not  the  whole  of  the  difficulty: 


Additional  Notes.  461 

Dr.  Darwin  tells  us  (vol.  ii.  Additional  Notes),  that  the 
doctrine  of  immaterial  ideas  is  a  "fanciful  hypothesis,  like  the 
stories  of  ghosts  and  apparitions,  which  have  so  long  amused  the 
credulous,  without  any  foundation  in  nature;"  yet  the  Senso- 
rial Power  is  sometimes  disrobed  of  its  materiality.  Is  this 
consistent  with  the  other  doctrines  concerning  the  Spirit  of 
Animation  which  this  writer  teaches?  When  the  Sensorial 
Power  is  led  to  assume  spirituality,  it  is  incapable  of  being 
acted  on  by  matter,  as  he  expressly  declares  ;  consequently  it 
ceases  to  exist,  for  it  is  no  longer  capable  of  acting  or  of  being 
acted  upon ;  and,  of  course,  in  all  such  cases,  life  is  sus- 
pended or  destroyed.  Wc  have  not,  however,  yet  exposed, 
in  its  full  extent,  the  inconsistency  of  Dr.  Darwin  on 
this  subject.  He  observes  that,  although  the  Sensorial  Power 
may  sometimes  disrobe  itself  of  solidity;  yet,  whenever  it 
communicates  motion  to  the  fibres,  or  is  itself  excited  by  their 
motion,  it  must  necessarily  be  solid  or  impenetrable;  because, 
as  the  muscular  fibres  approach  each  other  in  the  contraction 
of  a  muscle,  and  as  nothing  can  act  where  it  does  not 
exist,  the  approach  of  the  particles  can  be  explained  only  on 
the  supposition  of  an  intermediate  agent.  But  if  sensorial 
power,  during  its  exertion,  be  solid  and  impenetrable,  like 
the  fibres  on  which  it  acts,  the  supposition  of  its  existence 
will  not  render  at  all  more  explicable  the  phenomena  of  mus- 
cular contraction.  For  the  Sensorial  Power  between  the  par- 
ticles of  a  fibre  is  in  contact  with  those  particles,  or  it  is  not. 
If  it  be,  then  the  particles  of  the  fibre  cannot  approximate, 
because  there  is  no  vacant  space,  and  the  Sensorial  Power  is 
not  penetrable.  The  whole  fibre,  with  its  Sensorial  Power, 
forms  one  connected  substance,  and  is  thence  incapable  of 
motion.  But  if  the  Sensorial  Power  be  not  in  contact  with 
the  particles  of  the  fibre  on  which  it  acts,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  suppose  the  existence  of  another  intermediate  agent 
(a  subtle  fluid  no  doubt),  as  we  are  repeatedly  assured  that 
nothing  can  act  where  it  does  not  exist. 

The  doctrine  of  association  is  an  important  part  of  Dr. 
Darwin's  theory;  but  upon  the  principles  of  this  theory  as- 
sociation is  impossible.  Association  is  a  particular  quality  or 
state  of  Sensorial  Power;  but  this  power,  or,  which  is  the 
same  thing,  the  spirit  of  animation,  is  in  a  perpetual  state  of 
flux.  It  is  constantly  secreted  and  expended,  being  too  subtle 
to  remain  any  length  of  time  in  the  system.  The  particles 
of  this  spirit,  then,  cannot  form  any  habitual  connections 
or  associations  with  each  other,  because,  in  the  very  act  of 


462  Additional  Notes. 

association,  they  are  expended  and  destroyed.  According  to 
any  laws  of  matter  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  they  can 
only  be  connected  by  means  of  repeated  simultaneous  action; 
but  in  their  first  action,  according  to  this  theorist,  they  expire, 
and  their  places  are  supplied  by  new  particles,  which,  like 
them,  can  only  act  once  and  fly  ofF.  The  fibres,  indeed,  re- 
main, amidst  this  continual  flux  of  the  vital  fluid;  but  with- 
out it  they  possess  no  other  qualities  than  those  of  inanimate 
matter. 

Once  more  ;  Dr.  Darwin  allows  that  stimuli  sometimes 
exist  in  contact  with  Sensorial  Power,  without  producing  cor- 
responding effects.  He  accounts  for  this  fact  by  supposing 
that,  from  the  inconvenience  of  obeying  certain  irritations, 
we  learn  to  suffer  the  stimulating  material  to  accumulate  till 
it  disagreeably  affects  us,  and  that  the  subsequent  action  is  then 
in  consequence  of  this  disagreeable  sensation.  But  this  is  in- 
consistent with  his  other  doctrines.  Sensations  cannot  in  this 
manner  produce  contractions,  if  we  adhere  to  his  theory  of 
the  origin  of  ideas.  What  does  he  mean  by  saying,  we  suffer 
the  stimulating  material  to  accumulate  ?  The  sensorial  power 
exists  in  contact  with  the  requisite  stimulus :  Is  there  a  third 
principle,  a  presiding  mind,  in  his  creed,  which  regulates 
their  action? 

These  are  a  few  of  the  inconsistencies  with  which  this  ce- 
lebrated work  abounds.  In  no  respect,  perhaps,  does  the 
author  display  more  loose  thinking,  and  more  glaring  incon- 
sistency, than  in  the  manner  in  which  he  speaks  of  Sensorial 
Power.  Though  he  expressly  represents  the  faculties  of  the 
sensorium  as  different  states  of  the  same  vital  fluid,  or  spirit, 
and  though  this  doctrine  forms  the  ground-work  of  his  reason- 
ing ;  yet  he  sometimes  speaks  as  if  these  faculties  were  dif- 
ferent substances.  Sensorial  power  is,  with  him,  at  one  time 
solid  and  impenetrable,  and  at  another  spiritual  and  penetrable. 
And  though  he  expressly  ridicules  the  idea  of  an  immaterial 
sentient  principle  in  the  mind,  yet  he  frequently  speaks  in  a 
manner  which  is  altogether  unintelligible  without  supposing 
some  such  principle,  which  is  different  from  the  external  sti- 
mulus, the  animal  fibre,  and  the  sensorial , power,  and  which 
regulates  their  reciprocal  actions. 

4.  This  theory  is  insufficient  to  account  for  the  phenomena 
which  it  is  intended  to  explain;  and  it  is  opposed  to  facts. 

The  author  supposes  that  the  spirit  of  animation  exists  in 
four  distinct  states,  to  which  he  gives  four  names,  as  already 
mentioned.     Now,  this  spirit,  as  has  been  repeatedly  before 


Additional  Notes.  463 

Stated,  is  a  material  substance,  and  must,  of  course,  be  sub- 
ject to  the  laws  of  matter.  But  is  matter,  while  it  retains  its 
nature,  susceptible  of  these  radical  and  essential  changes  ?  Its 
form  may  be  changed;  the  relation  of  its  particles  may  varv; 
but  its  essential  properties  must  remain  the  same.  Notwith- 
standing this,  the  sentient  principle,  according  to  Dr.  Dar- 
win, is  continually  undergoing  changes  of  the  most  radical 
kind.  The  spirit  of  animation  in  volition  differs  from  the 
spirit  of  animation  in  sensation,  not  merely  in  the  position  of 
its  particles,  but  in  its  nature.  We  are  elevated  with  rapture, 
or  writhe  in  agony ;  we  revolt  with  horror  from  an  object,  or 
hasten  to  meet  it  with  joy;  we  are  alternately  actuated  by 
hope  and  fear,  desire  and  aversion,  love  and  hatred,  joy  and 
sorrow;  in  short,  there  is  a  diversity  almost  endless  in  the 
modes  of  our  feelings,  and  in  the  characters  of  our  ideas. 
Can  ail  these  different  and  opposite  states  of  mind  be  accounted 
for  by  any  supposable  changes  in  one  homogeneous  fluid? 
Or  is  it  possible  for  that  fluid  to  retain  its  nature,  and  all  its 
defined  attributes,  and  yet  to  be  continually  undergoing  this 
essential  change?  Assuredly  this  cannot  be  the  case,  con- 
sistenly  with  any  physical  laws  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted. 

Again ;  in  defining  the  difference  between  irritation,  sensa- 
tion, volition,  and  association,  Dr.  Darwin  resolves  it  all 
into  the  different  portion  of  the  sensorium  in  which  they  ori- 
ginate. Thus,  "  irritation  is  an  exertion  or  change  of  some 
extreme  parts  of  the  sensorium ;  sensation  is  an  exertion  or 
change  of  the  central  parts;"  &c.  But  the  Sensorial  Power 
resides  in  every  part  of  the  body,  and  it  is  every  where  the 
same  fluid,  secreted  by  the  same  gland,  endued  with  the  same 
attributes,  and  susceptible  of  the  same  changes;  and,  of 
course,  mere  difference  of  place,  if  other  circumstances  be 
equal,  is  not  sufficient  to  account  for  so  great  a  difference  as 
that  between  irritation  and  volition;  and  so  of  the  rest.  This 
is  assigning  a  cause  which  is  not  known  to  exist ;  and  which, 
if  it  do  exist,  is  not  sufficient  to  explain  the  phenomena. 

But  further  defects  in  this  theory  appear. — From  what  or- 
gan of  sense  do  we  derive  our  abstract  ideas?  What  fibrous 
motions  are  excited  when  we  call  to  mind  the  ideas  of  wis- 
dom, benevolence,  justice  and  truth  ?  According  to  Dr. 
Darwin,  these  general  ideas  are  repetitions  of  former  parti- 
cular perceptions,  obtained  through  the  organs  of  sense.  But 
can  general  ideas  be  mere  repetitions  of  particular  ones? 
The  simple  statement  of  the  doctrine  is  sufficient  for  its  refuta- 


464  Additional  Notes, 

tion.  The  power  of  abstraction,  then,  must  he  given  up,  of 
Dr.  Darwin's  theory  must  be  totally  abandoned.  Nor  can 
this  writer  be  considered  as  satisfactorily  replying  to  this  ob- 
jection, by  asking,  as  he  does,  in  his  turn,  how  eise  do  we  ac- 
quire abstract  ideas,  if  not  as  he  states  ?  Though  we  may 
not  be  able  to  find  any  other  solution  of  the  question,  it  does 
not  follow  that  the  one  which  he  offers  is  adequate  to  the  pur- 
pose. 

Memory  is  also  altogether  inexplicable  on  this  theory.  This 
too  is  said  to  consist  in  the  repetition  of  former  perceptions. 
But,  according  to  this  definition,  the  former  perception  must 
have  been  attended  with  an  impression  of  a  previous  similar  sen- 
sation, which  involves  an  absurdity;  and  as  this  first  contrac- 
tion of  the  fibre  was  occasioned  by  the  action  of  a  certain 
stimulus,  it  must  be  granted  by  the  advocates  of  this  theory, 
that  the  stimulus  might  have  acted  alone,  and  the  idea  of  me- 
mory have  been  rhus  produced,  without  any  object  of  re- 
membrance. Besides,  ideas  of  memory  cannot  arise  from  the 
motion  of  peculiar  fibres,  because  these  ideas  belong  alike  to 
all  our  sensations.  Nor  are  fibrous  motions  even  necessary  to 
their  immediate  production;  for  the  idea  of  memory  is  ex- 
cited as  readily  by  a  desire  which  we  have  formerly  experi- 
enced, or  by  a  process  of  reasoning  formerly  made  out,  as 
by  the  renewed  action  of  external  stimuli.  In  short,  the 
theory  of  Dr.  Darwin,  at  most,  can  only  be  considered,  by 
a  candid  inquirer,  as  solving  the  phenomena  of  one  class  of 
ideas,  viz.  those  which  we  receive  immediately  from  our  ex- 
ternal senses.  Even  of  some  of  these  it  furnishes  an  inade- 
quate solution;  but  all  the  rest,  not  only  those  of  memory 
and  abstraction,  but  also  those  of  imagination,  taste,  moral 
perception,  &c.  are  left  completely  in  the  dark,  after  all  his 
fanciful  attempts  at  explanation. 

It  is  also  worthy  of  remark,  that  one  of  the  leading  doc- 
trines of  this  theory  is  plainly  contradicted  by  fact.  Dr. 
Darwin  teaches  that  perception  is  not  to  be  referred,  as 
some  have  taught,  to  any  common  sensorium  in  the  head, 
but  that  it  takes  place  in  the  several  organs  of  sense  them- 
selves; that  the  fibrous  motions  in  these  organs  constitute 
our  ideas  ;  and  that,  of  course,  when  any  organ  of  sense  is  to- 
tally destroyed,  all  the  ideas  connected  with  it  necessarily  perish. 
But  is  the  man  who  became  deaf  in  adult  years  incapable 
of  forming  any  ideas  of  sound  ?  Were  Homer  and  Mil- 
ton unable  to  conceive  of  visual  objects  after  they  became* 
blind?     The  noble    descriptions  with   which    their  poems 


Additional  Notes.  465 

abound  are  alone  sufficient  to  refute  Dr.  Darwin.     He  is 
contradicted  by  the  experience  of  every  day. 

5.  Finally,  this  theory  is  unnecessarily  complex,  and  of- 
fends against  the  best  rules  of  philosophic  simplicity.  Irrita- 
tion is  an  exertion  of  the  sensorial  power^  or  of  the  spirit  of 
animation,  exciting  the  fibres  to  contraction.  By  this  con- 
traction no  end  appears  to  be  gained.  It  is  not  the  fibre  which 
is  sentient,  but  the  sensorial  power  resident  in  the  fibre.  The 
contraction  can,  therefore,  be  of  use  only  by  communicating 
a  certain  effect  to  the  sensorial  power.  But  the  sensorial 
power,  according  to  this  theory,  was  itself  affected,  previ- 
ously to  the  contraction,  and  was  itself  the  proximate  cause 
of  the  contraction.  Of  what  use,  then,  is  this  combination 
of  effects?  It  may,  indeed,  render  error  more  complicated 
and  perplexing;  but  it  cannot  assist  us  in  the  developement 
of  truth. 

Such  are  some  of  the  numerous  defects  and  errors  of  this 
celebrated  system  of  intellectual  physiology.  The  author 
falls  into  the  grand  mistake  adopted  by  all  the  materialists, 
viz.  a  belief  that  we  are  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  cau- 
sation. In  the  physical  world  we  see  events  connected  with 
each  other,  with  respect  to  time  and  place;  but  we  know- 
not  the  relation  which  they  sustain.  At  most,  a  series  ^  of 
facts  is  all  that  we  can  determine.  The  links  which  bind 
them  together,  and  the  nature  of  the  respective  processes  by 
which  they  succeed  to  each  other — in  a  word,  the  nature  of 
causation  we  can  never  understand.  We  are  equally  un- 
able to  understand  the  nature  of  causation  in  the  intellectual 
world.  Dr.  Darwin,  like  a  number  of  ingenious  and 
learned  men  before  him,  has  attempted  to  explore  this  im- 
penetrable region.  But  in  the  attempt,  instead  of  enlighten- 
ing us  by  the  exhibition  of  facts,  he  amuses  by  presenting 
phantasms  of  his  own  creation.  To  these  he  ascribes  such 
powers  as  suit  his  purpose;  and  having  drawn  out  in  detail  a 
statement  of  the  actions  and  variations  of  these  fictitious  be- 
ings, he  would  persuade  us  that  the  phenomena  of  mind  are 
explained.  But  let  none  mistake  words  for  ideas,  or  crea- 
tures of  the  fancy  for  realities.  "  The  affections  of  the  sen- 
tient principle  are  not  rendered  in  the  least  degree  more  intel- 
ligible by  resolving  them  into  motions  of  solids  or  fluids;  for 
the  cause  of  motion  is  as  inexplicable  as  the  cause  of  the  sen- 
tient affection.  If  the  science  of  mind  were  less  sure  than 
that  of  matter,  the  systems  of  materialism  might  have  some 
claim  to  our  respect;    but  though  they  were  liable  to  no, 

•o 


466  Additional  Notes. 

other  objection,  the  material  changes  can  be  known  to  us 
only  by  the  changes  of  mind,  and  must,  of  consequence,  be 
liable  to  all  their  uncertainty.  The  theory  of  Dr.  Darwin, 
therefore,  has  not  made  us  more  acquainted  with  the  mys- 
tery of  ourselves ;  and  whatever  praise  it  may  deserve  as  in- 
genious, its  principles  cannot  be  adopted  as  just." 

Those  who  would  see  a  more  detailed  view  of  the  defects, 
errors,  and  gross  inconsistencies  of  the  metaphvsical  theorv  of 
this  celebrated  physician,  will  do  well  to  consult  Observations 
on  Zoononua,  by  Thomas  Brown,  Esq.  Edinburgh.  8vo. 
1798;  a  work  which,  though  it  contains,  perhaps,  some 
groundless  strictures,  manifests  great  acuteness,  learning,  taste 
and  urbanity. 

Controversy  respecting  the  Soul.  p.  33. 

In  1702  William  Coward,  an  English  physician,  pub- 
lished a  work,  entitled,  Thoughts  on  the  Soul,  in  which  he 
maintained  that  it  is  material  and  mortal.  He  was  answered 
by  the  Rey.  Thomas  Broughton,  and  others,  and  defended 
himself  with  great  zeal.  The  House  of  Commons  at  length 
interfered  in  the  dispute,  and  ordered  his  work  to  be  burned  by 
the  hand  of  the  common  hangman.  In  1706  Henry  Dod- 
well5>  a  learned  writer  of  South-Britain,  published  a  singular 
work,  in  which  he  attempted  to  prove,  from  the  Scriptures  and 
the  early  Fathers,  that  the  soul  of  man  is  a  principle  naturally 
mortal,  but  actually  immortalized  by  the  pleasure  of  God,  by 
virtue  of  its  union  with  the  divine  baptismal  Spirit;  and  that, 
since  the  apostles,  none  have  the  power  of  giving  this  divine 
immortalizing  Spirit  excepting  the  bishops.  This  publication 
occasioned  a  controversy  of  considerable  warmth  and  interest, 
in  which  Dr.  Clarke,  Mr.  Norris,  and  others,  wrote 
against  Dodwell,  and  in  which  the  subject  received  much 
elucidation.  After  Dr.  Clarke,  Andrew  Baxter,  a  dis- 
tinguished writer  of  North-Britain,  undertook,  in  a  large 
work,  to  establish  the  immateriality  of  the  soul.  This  work 
is  generally  considered  as  among  the  most  able  and  satisfac- 
tory ever  written  in  defence  of  the  truth  which  it  supports. 


Clarke,  p.  33. 

Samuel  Clarke,  D.  D.  was  born  at  Norwich,  in  South- 
Britain,  in  the  year  1675.     He  was  educated  at  the  Univer- 


Additional  Notes.  467 

sity  of  Cambridge;  and  received  orders  in  the  Church  of 
England  about  the  year  1698.  In  1706  he  published  his 
letter  to  Dodwell,  on  the  immortality  of  the  soul;  a  philo- 
sophical and  learned  discourse.  In  1715  he  maintained  a 
controversy  with  Leibnitz,  which  has  been  much  celebrated ; 
and  in  1717  he  published  remarks  upon  Collins's  Philoso- 
phical Inquiry  concerning  Human  Liberty.  His  other  works 
are  numerous,  and  indicate  great  acuteness,  learning,  and 
critical  skill.  He  died  in  1729.  Dr.  Clarke  is  certainly 
entitled  to  a  place  among  the  greatest  men  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Price,  p.  33. 

Richard  Price,  D.  D.  was  born  in  Wales,  about  the 
year  1725.  He  was  an  eminent  dissenting  minister,  no  less 
distinguished  for  the  amiableness  of  his  private  character  than 
for  his  great  talents,  and  his  laudable  exertions  in  the  cause 
of  human  happiness.  He  published  his  Review  of  the  prin- 
cipal Questions  and  Difficidties  in  Morals,  &c.  in  1758 ;  his 
Observations  on  Reversionary  Payments,  &c.  in  1771 ;  and 
A  free  Discussion  of  the  Doctrines  of  Materialism  and  Phi- 
losophical Necessity,  with  Dr.  Priestley,  in  1778.  These 
are  his  most  celebrated  works.     He  died  in  1791. 

Watts,  p.  33. 

Isaac  Watts,  D.  D.  was  born  at  Southampton,  in  South- 
Britain,  in  1674.  The  works  of  this  great  and  good  man  are 
numerous  and  excellent.  His  Treatise  on  Logic,  his  Treatise 
on  the  Improvement  of  the  Mind,  and  his  Philosophical  Es- 
says, contain  the  chief  of  what  he  wrote  on  metaphysical  sub- 
jects. He  entered  on  the  work  of  the  Gospel  ministry  about 
the  year  1 700 ;  received  the  degree  of  D.  D.  from  the  Uni- 
versities of  Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen,  in  1723;  and  died  in 
1741. 

Controversy  between  Nominalists  and  Realists,  p.  33. 

This  controversy  is  not  properly  stated  in  the  note  in  the 
above-mentioned  page.  The  following  view  of  the  subject 
is,  it  is  believed,  more  correct,  and  will,  perhaps,  be  more 
intelligible  to  the  reader. — The  Realists  supposed  that  there 
are  certain  substantial  forms  or  essences,  corresponding  to  ge- 


468  Additional  Notes, 

neral  terms,  and  which  the  mind  contemplates  in  employing 
such  terms.  -  Thus,  when  the  general  term  vegetable  is  used, . 
they  contend  that  the  mind  contemplates  some  substance  of 
a  very  refined  nature,  or  a  general  form,  having  a  positive 
existence.  This  substance  or  form,  according  to  them,  does 
not  belong  to  any  particular  genus  or  species  of  vegetables 
exclusively,  but  is  a  phantasm,  made  up  of  every  thing  that 
is  common  to  different  genera  or  species.  It  is  about  this 
form  or  general  essence  that  the  mind  is  employed  while  con- 
sidering vegetable  in  the  abstract.  Both  the  Platonists  and 
the  Aristotelians  were  Realists,  though  differing  among 
themselves  with  regard  to  some  details. 

The  Nominalists,  on  the  other  hand,  contended  that  there 
are  no  existences  in  nature  corresponding  to  general  terms, 
and  that  the  objects  of  our  attention,  in  all  our  general  spe- 
culations, are  not  essences,  forms,  or  ideas,  but  words.  Thus 
they  suppose  that,  in  the  instance  above  selected,  the  word 
vegetable  is  the  proper  object  of  thought.  This  word,  hav- 
ing been  adopted  as  the  representative  of  certain  ideas  col- 
lected from  several  genera  and  species,  is  used,  in  a  manner, 
analogous  to  an  algebraic  character,  which  we  employ  through- 
out a  process,  without  attending  to  the  quantity  which  it  re- 
presents. This  was  the  doctrine  of  Zeno,  of  the  Stoics,  of 
Roscelinus,  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  of  his  successor, 
Abelard. 

The  Conceptualists  dissent  from  both'  of  the  above-stated 
opinions.  They  suppose  that  words  are  connected,  by  com- 
mon consent,  with  certain  attributes  common  to  a  number  of 
genera  and  species,  and  abstracted  from  all  peculiarities.  By 
the  law  of  the  association  of  ideas,  when  the  word  vegetable 
is  pronounced,  all  these  attributes  are  drawn  out  of  the  ca- 
binet of  memory,  and  arranged,  by  the  faculty  of  conception, 
before  the  mind.  This  collection  of  ideas  they  suppose  to  be 
the  object  about  which  the  mind  is  exercised.  We  lose  sight 
of  the  word,  and  instantly  attend  to  these  conceptions. 


Metaphysical  Improvements  of  the  eighteenth  Century. 

From  a  review  of  the  whole  of  this  chapter,  it  appears  that 
the  principal  improvements  which  have  been  made  in  meta- 
physical science,  during  the  last  age,  may  be  summarily  pre- 
sented in  the  following  particulars. 

1.  The  Inductive  Method  of  inquiry  has  been  introduced 


Additional  Notes.  469 

into  this  branch  of  science,  more  fully  and  with  greater  suc- 
cess than  ever  before.  In  other  words,  some  philosophers  of 
the  last  age  have  taught  us,  for  the  first  time,  to  study  the 
human  mind  by  ascertaining  facts,  and  carefully  observing 
and  arranging  its  phenomena,  without  endeavouring  to  ex- 
plain these  phenomena  by  hypotheses  and  conjectures. 

2.  The  theory  of  Perception,  which  had,  for  so  many 
centuries,  perplexed  and  deluded  philosophers,  was,  for  the 
£rst  time,  during  this  period,  denied  and  disproved,  and  a 
more  rational  doctrine  introduced  in  its  stead. 

3.  The  enumeration  and  arrangement  of  the  intellectual 
powers  have  been  delivered,  by  metaphysicians  of  this  age, 
from  the  false,  inadequate,  and  mischievous  simplicity,  which 
were  so  long  and  obstinately  adhered  to  by  their  predecessors. 
The  original  powers  of  the  mind  have  been  shown  to  be  more 
numerous  than  they  were  before  supposed ;  and  the  plan  of 
studying  them  in  detail,  rather  than  through  the  medium  of  a 
set  of  deceptive  systematic  rules,  exhibited  and  recommended. 

4.  The  metaphysical  writings  of  the  eighteenth  century 
are,  in  general,  more  clear,  popular  and  intelligible  than 
those  of  any  former  age.  To  this  some  of  the  most  erroneous 
writers  of  the  age  have,  by  their  acuteness,  contributed. 
Even  Berkeley  and  Hume  have  thus  indirectly  subserved 
the  interests  of  metaphysical  science. 


NOTES  ON  CHAPTER  XIII. 

Revival  of  Classic  Literature  in  Britain,  p.  37. 

WITHIN  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  classic  literature,  and  especially  the  study  of  the 
Greek  language,  has,  in  some  degree,  revived  in  Great-Bri- 
tain. From  the  time  in  which  Barnes,  Bentley,  and 
Clarke  flourished,  till  the  period  above-mentioned,  their 
country  could  boast  of  few  acquisitions  in  this  department  of 
literature.  But  towards  the  close  of  the  century,  rhe  labours 
of  Burney,  Wakefield,  Parr,  and  Porson,  not  to  men- 
tion several  others,  who  might  with  propriety  be  introduced 
into  the  same  list,  revived  the  taste  for  this  kind  of  learning 
and  will  probably  produce  still  more  extensive  effects. 


470  Additional  Notes. 


State  of  Classic  Literature  in  America,  p.  37. 

The  statement  respecting  the  low  state  of  classic  literature 
in  the  greater  number  of  our  American  colleges,  though  true 
in  general,  is  not  to  be  admitted  without  exception.  There 
are  instructors  in  several  colleges  in  the  United  States,  under 
whose  tuition  a  youth,  who  is  disposed  to  do  justice  to  him- 
self, may  obtain  as  accurate  and  good  an  introduction  to  Greek 
and  Latin  literature  as  can  be  obtained  in  any  European  uni- 
versity, without  exception.  But  as  nothing  more  than  the 
foundation  of  knowledge  can  be  laid  at  seminaries  of  learn- 
ing, at  least  in  the  usual  course;  and  as  this  foundation  in 
classic  literature  is  too  seldom  built  upon,  in  after  life,  by  the 
youth  in  America,  we  have  fewer  proficients  in  this  depart- 
ment of  learning  than  our  just  proportion. 

The  author  has  been  lately  informed,  and  mentions  with 
great  pleasure,  that  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States  there 
are  promising  appearances  of  a  revival  of  classic  literature. 


Greek  and  Latin  Criticism,  p.  46. 

Though  it  is  certain  that  the  great  proficients  in  classic 
literature  were  much  fewer  at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century  than  at  its  commencement,  yet,  in  some  respects, 
these  few  possessed  advantages  which  none  of  their  predeces- 
sors enjoyed.  The  advantages  enjoyed  by  them  in  the  fol- 
lowing particulars  are  obvious.  A  spirit  of  philosophy  has 
been  introduced,  during  this  period,  into  historical  investiga- 
tions, which,  united  with  the  advantages  of  unwearied  re- 
search, has  greatly  extended  our  knowledge  of  ancient  man- 
ners, and  afforded  new  illustration  to  ancient  writings.  The 
niceties  of  conjectural  criticism  have  been  carried,  since  the 
time  of  Bentley,  to  a  greater  length  than  was  ever  before 
known.  The  proper  excellences  of  style  have  become  lately 
much  better  understood  than  they  were  at  earlier  periods  of 
the  critical  art ;  and  the  reign  of  just  taste  among  classical 
commentators  more  generally  established.  Many  grammatical 
rules  of  the  ancient  languages,  and  especially  of  the  Greek 
language,  have  been  ascertained  and  laid  down,  with  a  degree 
of  precision  to  which  former  critics  were  entire  strangers. 
The  metres  of  the  ancient  poets  have  been  much  better  under- 
stood and  illustrated  by  the  commentators  of  the  last  century 


Additional  Notes.  471 

than  those  of  any  preceding  age.  And,  finally,  by  the  col- 
lections of  new  manuscripts,  new  light  has  been  thrown  on 
many  passages  of  classic  authors  which  were  before  unintel- 
ligible or  obscure.  For  these  improvements  we  are  chiefly 
indebted  to  the  critics  of  Great-Britain,  Germany,  and  Hol- 
land. 

Editions  of  the  Classics,  p.  50* 

Almost  all  the  classics  had  been  repeatedly  edited  prior  to 
the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Besides  many 
single  works  of  high  reputation  which  pertain  to  this  class, 
there  are  two  of  a  more  extensive  and  celebrated  kind,  be- 
longing to  the  seventeenth  century,  which  are  worthy  of 
notice.  These  are  the  Variorum  editions,  as  they  are  gene- 
rally called,  published  in  Holland,  about  the  middle  of  that 
century,  by  Gr^evius,  Gronovius,  Schrevelius,  and 
others ;  and  the  still  more  famous  editions,  In  usum  Serenis- 
simi  Delphini,  published  towards  the  close  of  the  same  cen- 
tury, under  the  patronage  of  Louis  XIV.  and  chiefly  com- 
pleted by  the  labours  of  Huet,  Bossuet,  Montausier, 
and  RujEUS.  But  these,  notwithstanding  all  their  excellence, 
have  not  discouraged  subsequent  attempts.  The  editions 
which  have  been  given  to  the  public,  during  the  period  of 
this  retrospect,  are  chiefly  distinguished  by  their  great  typo- 
graphical elegance;  their  additions  to  the  various  readings  be- 
fore collected ;  the  superior  taste  and  delicacy  of  their  con- 
jectural criticism  ;  and  their  more  enlightened  and  liberal  com- 
mentaries on  the  defects,  beauties,  and  meaning  of  the  ancient 
writers. 

The  following  editions  of  Greek  authors,  in  addition  to 
those  before  mentioned,  are  worthy  of  notice:  viz.  the  works 
of  Aristotle,  by  Buhle;  of  Longinus,  by  Pearce  and 
Ruhnkenius;  of  Demosthenes,  by  Wolfius  and  Taylor; 
of  Aristophanes  and  Sophocles,  by  Brunck  ;  and  oiAnacreon, 
by  Barnes,  Pauw,  Spaletti,  Degen  and  Gail. 

The  following  editions  of  Latin  authors  also  deserve  to  be 
mentioned:  viz.  Cicero,  by  Barbou  ;  Livy,  by  Crevier; 
Justin,  by  Barbou  ;  Sallust,  by  Havercamp,  and  by  Don 
Gabriel,  of  Spain ;  Terence,  by  Mrs.  Grierson,  by 
Westerhovius,  and  by  Zeunius  ;  Pliny,  sen.  by  Har- 
doin  ;  Pliny,  jun.  by  Gesner,  and  by  L'Allemand;  Sue- 
tonius and  Plautus,  by  Ernestus;  and  Propertius,  by 
Broukhousius  andBuRMANN. 


472  Additional  Notes* 


Translations  of  Classic  Authors,  p.  52. 

To  the  list  of  translations  of  Greek  classics  into  the  Eng- 
lish language,  during  the  late  century,  add  the  following: — » 
Pindar,  by  West  ;  Anacreon,  Bum,  Moschus,  and  Theo- 
critus, by  Fawkes;  and  Anacreon,  by  Moore. 

To  the  catalogue  of  versions  of  Latin  classics  into  English, 
during  the  same  period,  we  may  add,  the  Bucolics  and  Geor- 
gics  of  Virgil,  by  Professor  Martyn,  of  Cambridge;  and 
the  Comedies  of  Plant  us  by  Thornton. 

The  translation  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  of  Homer,  into 
French,  near  the  beginning  of  the  century,  by  Madame  Da- 
cier,  is  among  the  numerous  monuments  of  the  learning  and 
talents  of  that  distinguished  woman. 

The  works  of  Plutarch  were  translated  into  French,  early 
in  the  century,  by  M.  Amiot,  and,  mere  recently  and  ably, 
by  M.  Riccard. 

*  The  translation  of  the  Bucolics  and  Georgics  of  Virgil^ 
into  Greek  hexameters,  by  Eugenius,  a  Russian  Archbishop, 
is  a  singular  specimen  of  literary  labour.  This  work  was 
splendidly  printed,  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, under  die  patronage,  and  at  the  expense  of  Prince  Po- 
temkin. 


NOTES  ON  CHAPTER  XIV. 

Hebrew  Literature, 

AMONG  the  numerous  Hebrew  Grammars  which  have 
solicited  public  attention  during  the  last  age,  respectful  notice 
ought  to  be  taken  of  "  A  Plain  and  Complete  Grammar  of 
the  Hebrew  Language,  with  and  without  Points"  By  An- 
selm  Bayly,  LL.  D.  8vo.  1774. 

The  Tractatus  Stigmologicus  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Bos- 
ton, a  pious  and  learned  clergyman  of  North-Britain,  de- 
serves a  distinguished  place  in  the  list  of  those  publications 
which  do  honour  to  the  eighteenth  century,  with  respect  to 
Hebrew  literature.  It  is  too  little  known,  and  as  it  is  more 
read,  will  be  more  esteemed. 


Additional  Notes.  473 

The  Origines  Hebraicce  of  Professor  Schultens,  of 
Leyden,  do  great  honour  to  this  period.  The  Jar.ua  Ile- 
hraiae  Lifigtrie,  by  Reinecius;  the  Supplementa  ad  Lexica 
raica,  by  John  David  Michaelis;  and  the InMiiu- 
tiones  Lingua  llebraicce,  by  Schroeder,  all  of  Germany, 
have  been  mentioned  with  much  respect  by  the  oriental 
critics  of  that  country. 

The  Apparatus  Criiicus  of  Bengel  is  mentioned  under 
this  head  by  mistake.  It  does  not  belong  to  the  department 
of  Hebrew  literature.  It  is  a  critical,  learned,  and  highly  va- 
luable work  on  the  New  Testament* 

It  is  also  erroneous  to  ascribe  a  "  great  Hebrew  Lexicon" 
to  Calmet.  That  great  man  never  published  such  a  work. 
His  Historical^  Critical  and  Chronological  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  in  two  vols,  folio,  is  a  work  of  high  reputation,  and 
contains  much  important  criticism  on  the  Old  Testament 
Scriptures. 


Arabic  Literature. 

Professor  Reiske,  of  Leipsic,  who  died  in  1774,  after  a 
hfe  of  more  than  eighty  yeais,  was  one  of  the  most  able  and 
zealous  promoters  of  Arabic  literature  that  the  age  produced. 
By  his  unremitted  oral  instructions,  and  by  his  valuable  pub- 
lications, he  contributed  to  the  rearing  of  a  great  number  of 
excellent  Arabic  scholars.  His  successor  in  the  professorial 
chair  at  Leipsic,  E.  C.  Rosenmuller,  is  highly  distinguished 
in  the  same  walk  of  literature.  His  Arabisches  Elementar, 
&c.  is  represented  as  a  work  of  much  value,  and  worthy  of 
a  place  in  the  library  of  every  student  of  the  Arabic  lan^ 
guage. 

In  1800  Professor  White,  of  the  University  of  Oxford, 
presented  to  the  lovers  of  Arabic  literature  a  curious  and  va- 
luable work,  entitled,  Abdollatiphi  Histories  JEgypti  Com- 
pendium Arabice  et  Latine.  This  work  was  first  carried  to 
England  by  Dr.  Pocoxe,  the  celebrated  traveller.  His  son, 
a  great  Orientalist,  undertook  to  translate  and  publish  it,  but 
never  completed  his  undertaking.  Professor  White,  at 
length,  published  the  original  Arabic,  with  a  Latin  transla- 
tion, and  learned  notes.  This  has  been  represented  as  one 
of  the  most  curious  and  valuable  specimens  of  Arabic  litera- 
ture ever  imported  from  the  East. 

Since  the  version  of  Sale,  the  Koran  has  been  translated 

VOL.   II.  3P 


414  Additional  Notes. 

into  French  by  M.  Savary,  the  celebrated  traveller  into 
Egypt.  It  is  published  with  his  Letters  on  Egypt  and  Greece* 
in  six  vols.  8vo. 


Persian  Literature. 

The  translation  of  the  History  of  Nadir  Shah  was  un- 
dertaken by  Sir  William  Jones,  at  the  instance  of  the  King 
of  Denmark.  For  this  honourable  monument  of  learned  la- 
bour, his  royal  employer  presented  him  with  a  snuff-box ! 

Persian  literature  has  also  been  enriched,  during  the  last 
age,  with  a  number  of  other  important  translations  into  the 
different  languages  of  Europe. 


Hindoo  Literature. 

The  principal  compiler  of  the  Lettres  Edifiantes  et  Cn- 
■rieuses,  was  Father  Charles  Gobien,  a  Jesuit,  of  St.  Ma- 
loes,  assisted  by  Du  Halde,  and  others,  of  the  same  order. 
These  Letters  are  filled  with  interesting  accounts  of  the  Na- 
tural History,  Geography,  Policy,  and  Literature  of  the  coun- 
tries visited  by  the  Jesuits.  They  appeared  at  an  early  period 
of  the  century,  in  a  number  of  volumes. 

John  Zephaniah  Holwell,  Esq.  Governor  of  Bengal, 
was  among  the  persons  confined  in  the  Black  Hole,  at  Cal- 
cutta, in  1756,  of  which  he  published  a  narrative.  He  was 
among  the  first  Europeans  who  engaged  in  the  study  of  Hin- 
doo antiquities;  and  pointed  out  the  path  which  others  have 
so  successfully  pursued.  He  was,  however,  wholly  ignorant 
of  the  Sanscrit  language,  and,  on  account  of  this  deficiency, 
laboured  under  many  disadvantages,  and  made  gross  mistakes 
in  his  investigations.  : 

Mr.  Halhed  published  a  Grammar  of  the  Bengal  Lan- 
guage, in  Calcutta,  in  1778,  and  in  London  in  1780.  Con- 
sidering this  language  as  the  sole  channel  of  personal  and 
epistolary  communication  among  the  Hindoos,  of  every  oc- 
cupation and  tribe;  and  considering,  also,  that,  of  all  the 
oriental  languages,  this  approaches  nearest  to  the  Sanscrit,  in 
expression,  structure,  and  character,  every  attempt  to  illus- 
trate its  principles,  and  facilitate  its  acquisition,  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  important  present  both  to  the  literary  and  com- 
mercial world. 


Additional  Notes.  475 

Mr.  Colebrooke,  towards  the  close  of  the  century,  pub- 
lished a  Digest  of  Hindoo  Law,  in  four  vols.  8vo.  He  was 
induced  to  undertake  this  work  by  the  recommendation  of 
Sir  William  Jones.  It  is,  on  various  accounts,  a  curious 
and  valuable  work. 

The  Rev.  William  Carey,  a  Baptist  missionary  of  dis- 
tinguished talents  and  piety,  has,  by  his  persevering  labours, 
rendered  important  service  to  Hindoo  literature.  At  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century  he  had  translated  the  whole  Bible 
into  the  Bengalee  language,  had  printed  his  translation  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  distributed  a  large  edition  of  this  portion 
of  the  sacred  scriptures  among  the  Hindoos.  This  zealous 
and  unwearied  missionary  has  also  formed  a  Sanscrit  Gram- 
mar, and  has  begun  a  Dictionary  of  the  same  language. 


Chinese  Literature. 

A  curious  specimen  of  Chinese  literature  was  given  to  the 
world,  during  the  eighteenth  century,  by  Joseph  Moyriac 
de  Mailla,  a  learned  French  Jesuit.  Having  made  himself 
acquainted  with  the  Chinese  language,  this  ecclesiastic  was 
sent  as  a  missionary  to  China  in  1703.  He  was  greatly 
esteemed  by  the  Emperor,  Kang-Hi,  who  employed  him 
in  making  a  map  of  China,  and  of  Chinese  Tartary.  Mailla 
translated  the  great  Annals  of  China  into  French,  part  of 
which  translation  has  been  published  by  the  Abbe  Grosier, 
under  the  following  title:  Histoire  General  de  la  Chine.  13 
vols.  4to.  Paris.  1777. — Mailla  died  at  Pekin,  in  the  year 
1748. 


NOTES  ON  CHAPTER  XV. 


French  Language. 

oINCE  the  publication  of  Richelet's  Dictionary,  a  more 
full  and  accurate  one  has  been  compiled  by  the  Abbe  Fe- 
raud. 


476  Additional  Notes. 

Italian  Language. 

During  a  great  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Italian 
language  was  in  a  state  of  comparative  degeneracy.  It 
abounded,  to  an  excess,  with  metaphor  and  antithesis,  allu- 
sion and  conceit;  so  that,  instead  of  the  simplicity  which 
had  before  prevailed,  affectation  and  obscurity  became  its  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics.  This  taste  was  too  much  coun- 
tenanced and  promoted  by  the  writings  of  Marini,  Tasso, 
and  Chiabrera,  which,  though  monuments  of  great  genius, 
yet  gave  currency  to  false  principles  of  composition.  During 
this  period  the  best  models  of  ancient  taste  fell  into  neglect; 
and  such  only  were  selected  for  imitation  as  favoured  the  glit- 
ter, the  bombast,  and  the  pedantry  which  were  then  in 
vogue.  Of  this  the  satires  of  Benedict  Menzini,  and  of 
Salvator  Rosa,  and  the  discourses  of  Mo  rone,  Pao- 
lettt,  and  others,  afford  sufficient  proof. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  these  per- 
versions of  taste  began  to  decline,  and  the  Italian  literati  as- 
sumed a  style  more  simple,  unaffected  and  accurate  than  that 
which  had  been  in  fashion  for  more  than  an  hundred  years. 
Apostolo  Zeno,  a  distinguished  Venetian  writer,  was  one 
of  the  first  who  introduced  a  natural  turn  of  sentiment  and 
expression  into  his  writings,  and  recommended  this  manner 
to  his  countrymen.     Gravina,  about  the  same  time,  re- 
called the  attention  of  the  learned  to  the  best  specimens  of 
Grecian  and  Roman  eloquence.     Besides  these,  the  poems  oi 
■   ar'ni,  the  miscellaneous  pieces  of  Tagliazucchi, 
;cal  writings  of  Muratori,  the  dramatic  produc- 
yIarteli,  Maffei,  C.esarotti,  Alfieri,  and 
Me  r  astasio,  the  various  works  of  the  Marquis  of  Beccaria, 
and  many  others,  are  entitled  to  particular  notice,  as  honour- 
liteiatuie  during  the  eighteenth  century,  and  as 
having  contributed  to  the  progress  of  its  improvement. 

the  influence  of  these  and  other  writers,  the  Italian 
'language  gained,  in  the  eighteenth  century,  a  degree  of  pu- 
rity, dignity,  and  general  excellence,  unknown  even  in  the 
a^e  of  iiEMBo  and  of  Casa.  The  ancient  rules  and  models 
iste  resumed,  in  a  considerable  degree,  their  sway;  and, 
is,  perhaps,  of  little  less  importance,  some  of  the  most 
classical  productions  of  Great-Britain  and  of  France,  by  being 
translated  into  Italian,  and  naturalized  in  that  country,  have 
contributed,  in  no  small  degree,  to  meliorate  the  public  taste, 
and  to  produce  a  reform  in  the  literature  of  that  country. 


Additional  Notts.  477 


German  Language. 


About  the  year  1720,  the  practice  of  employing  the  ver- 
nacular tongue  in  important  scientific  publications  vyas  com- 
menced in  Germany.  For  the  introduction  of  this  improve- 
ment the  honour  is  chiefly  due  to  Thomasius,  an  eminent 
metaphysical  and  moral  writer  of  that  country ;  and  to  Wo  if, 
distinguished  for  his  labours  in  the  same  department  of  science. 
Their  example  was  soon  followed  by  others.  From  that  pe- 
riod, therefore,  it  became  necessary  for  authors  to  culm  ate 
their  own  language  with  greater  care:  the  influence  of  which 
soon  became  visible  in  their  writings.  A  few  years  afterwards, 
that  is  to  say,  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  the  practice 
of  translating  the  best  French  and  English  books  commenced 
in  Germany,  and  produced  very  sensible  effects  in  meliorating 
the  style  of  writing  among  the  German  literati.  These  events 
were 'succeeded  by  the  works  of  several  authors,  who  wrote 
with  a  particular  view  to  the  introduction  of  new  idioms  and 
graces  of  language,  and  whose  exertions  were  productive  of 
the  most  useful  effects.— See  the  progress  of  improvement  in 
German  style  more  minutely  traced  in  the  26th  chapter  of 
this  work. 


NOTES  ON  CHAPTER  XVII. 

THE  principal  writers  of  Universal  History  in  Germany 

areGATTERER,HETNRICH,MuLLER,aildHABERLIN.   The 

most  distinguished  writers  of  particular  histories  are  Ge- 
eauer,  Schmidt,  Krause,  Wieland,  Galetti,  and 
Schiller.     The  greatest  Statistical  historians  are  Achen- 

WALL,  WALCH,  ReINHARD,REiMER,  MEUSELandSPREN- 

gel.  ■ 

The  History  of  England,  in  the  form  of  Letters  from  a 
Nobleman  to  his  Son,  in  two  vols.  12mo,  was  ascribed  to 
Lord  Lyttleton,  to  the  Earl  of  Orrery,  and  other  noble 
writers;  but  was,  in  reality,  written  by  Dr.  Goldsmith. 

Mrs.  Macaulay,  in  her  History  of  England  from  the 
Revolution  to  the  present  Time,  4to.  1778,  adopts  the  mode 
of  writing  in  Letters,  addressed  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Wilson. 


47$  Additional  Notes. 

Sir  John  Hawkins  published  an  History  of  Music,  in 
1776,  in  five  vols.  4to.  This  work  contains  much  curious 
information,  and  is  reputable  to  its  author;  but  has  been  su- 
perseded by  the  better  work  of  Dr.  Burney. 

The  first  Chart  of  History  was  published,  it  is  believed, 
in  France,  about  the  year  1760,  by  the  Abbe  Langlet  du 
Fresnoy.  A  few  years  afterwards,  a  similar  work,  taken 
from  Du  Fresngy's,  but  much  improved,  was  published  in 
England.  Dr.  Priestley's  New  Chart  of  History  was  the 
third  attempt  of  the  kind ;  and  is,  doubtless,  superior  to  all 
preceding  works  of  a  similar  nature. 


NOTES  ON  CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE  FAoges  of  Fontenelle,  and  of  D'Alembert,  hold 
a  distinguished  place  among  the  writings  of  this  class  in  the 
last  age. 

The  American  Biography,  by  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Bel- 
knap, of  Boston,  in  two  vols.  8vo.  is  a  work  honourable 
to  the  compiler,  and  highly  useful  to  the  student  of  Ameri- 
can history. 

To  the  list  of  biographical  works  given  in  pages  151  and 
152,  it  is  proper  to  add,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Admini- 
stration of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  Earl  of  Orford,  by  Coxe. 

The  Life  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  by  Roscoe,  is  worthy  of 
more  particular  notice,  and  of  more  pointed  praise,  than  are 
bestowed  upon  it  in  the  above-mentioned  page.  It  indicates 
an  extent  of  reading,  and  an  elegance  of  taste,  which  will 
do  lasting  honour  to  the  author. 

The  Life  of  Limiceus,  by  Stoever,  deserves  a  place 
among  the  valuable  biographical  works  which  appeared  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Almost  all  the  Accounts  of  distinguished  Living  Charac- 
ters, with  which  the  republic  of  letters  has  abounded  within 
a  few  years  past,  have  been  worse  than  useless.  With 
few  exceptions,  they  have  been  written  in  a  continued  strain 
of  panegyric,  which  is  rather  calculated  to  flatter  its  imme- 
diate objects,  and  to  mislead  others,  than  to  gratify  curiosity, 
or  to  convey  instruction.     If  these  works  should  be  perused 


Additional  Notes..  479 

a  century  hence,  they  will  give  scarcely  any  just  information 
concerning  the  characters  of  which  they  treat. 

The  number  of  self -biographers  was  much  greater  in  the 
eighteenth  century  than  in  any  former  period. 


NOTES  ON  CHAPTER  XX. 


Pope  awrf  Dryden.  p.  181. 

A  FRIEND  of  learning  and  taste,  on  reading  what  is  said 
of  the  comparative  merits  of  these  two  great  English  poets* 
made  the  following  remark:  "  Dryden,  in  my  opinion,  did 
more  to  improve  English  versification  than  Pope.  The  in- 
terval is  wider  between  Dryden  and  the  best  of  his  predeces* 
sors  than  between  Dryden  and  Pope." 


Epic  Poetry. 

Glove  p.  wrote  a  second  epic  poem,  entitled,  The  A  the-* 
niad,  which  has  been  praised;  but  is  generally  considered  as 
inferior  to  his  Leonidas. 

The  Epigoniad,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  William  Wilkie,  of 
North-Britain,  is  an  epic  poem  of  some  merit,  but  far  from 
being  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  first  class.  This  writer  has 
been  called  the  "  Homer  of  Scotland,"  His  work  was  first 
published  in  1757,  and  reached  a  second  edition  in  1759. — ■ 
He  died  at  St.  Andrews  in  1772. 

In  the  composition  of  the  Joan  of  Arc,  Southey  was  as- 
sisted by  his  friend  Coleridge,  a  poet  of  great  genius  and 
tasre. 

Cowper's  Translation  of  Homer  deserves  an  honourable 
place  here.  Considered  as  a  translation,  it  is  certainly  su- 
perior to  Pope's.  Gilbert  Wakefield  observes,  that 
whoever  wishes  to  see  Homer  in  English  dress  must  read 
Cow  PER. 

Oberon,  though  the  best,  is  not  the  only  epic  poem  pro- 
duced by  Wieland.  His  Idris,  his  Ncuen  Amadis,  and 
his  Liebe  nm  Liebe,  were  prior  in  time,  but  inferior  in  merit. 


4S0  Additional  Notes. 

They  have,  however,  been  highly  commended,  particularly 
by  the  critics  in  the  author's  own  country. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  good  judges  that  the  Lusiad  of 
Mickle  is  much  superior  to  the  Lusiad  of  Camoens.  The 
translator  has  certainly,  in  some  respects,  improved  on  the 
original,  and  made  many  additions. 

The  Poems  of  Ossian,  a  little  before  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury, were  translated  into  Italian,  by  Cesarotti,  with  great 
elegance. 


Didactic  Poetry. 

Wieland,  the  celebrated  German  writer,  has  written  se- 
veral didactic  poems,  which  have  been  much  commended. 
His  Die  Natur,  his  Anti-Ovid,  and  his  Musarion,  are  re- 
presented as  possessing  peculiar  merit.  With  the.r  character, 
however,  I  have  too  little  acquaintance  to  speak  particularly. 
Besides  these,  the  didactic  poems  of  Hagedorn,  Gieske, 
Kastner,  Uz  and  Dusch,  also  Germans,  have  been  spoken 
of,  by  the  critics  of  their  own  country,  with  high  respect. 

The  Grave,  a  didactic  poem,  by  Blair,  is  a  work  of 
great  excellence,  and  general  popularity. 

The  following  remarks  may  with  propriety  be  read  in  con- 
nection with  the  character  which  is  given  of  the  Abbe  De- 
lille's  Garden. 

"  Voltaire,  in  his  discourse  pronounced  at  his  reception 
into  the  French  Academy,  gives  several  reasons  why  the  poets 
of  that  country  have  not  succeeded  in  describing  rural  scenes 
and  employments.  The  principal  one  is,  the  ideas  of  mean- 
ness, poverty,  and  wretchedness,  which  the  French  are 
accustomed  to  associate  with  the  profession  of  husbandry. 
The  same  thing  is  alluded  to  by  the  Abbe  Delille,  in  the 
preliminary  discourse  prefixed  to  his  translation  of  the  Georgics. 
'  A  translation,'  says  he,  '  of  this  poem,  if  it  had  been  under- 
taken by  an  author  of  genius,  would  have  been  better  calcu- 
lated than  any  other  work  for  adding  to  the  riches  of  our  lan- 
guage. A  version  of  the  ALneid  itself,  however  well  exe- 
cuted, would,  in  this  respect,  be  of  less  utility;  inasmuch 
as  the  genius  of  our  tongue  accommodates  itself  more  easily 
to  the  description  of  heroic  achievements,  than  to  the  details 
of  natural  phenomena,  and  of  the  operations  of  husbandry. 
To  force  it  to  express  these  with  suitable  dignity,  would 
have  been  a  real  conquest  over  that  false  delicacy  which  it 


Additional  Notes.  481 

has  contracted  from  our  unfortunate  prejudices." — Stew- 
art's Elements  of  the  Philosophy  of  Mind,  Part  II.  chap. 
v.   §  2.  second  edit. 

Moral  and  Devotional  Poetry. 

To  the  list  of  sacred  poets,  the  immortal  name  of  Cow- 
per  ought  to  be  added,  as  holding  a  place  in  the  first  rank. 
The  orthodoxy  of  his  faith,  and  the  fervour  of  his  piety, 
joined  to  his  great  talents,  fitted  him  pre-eminently  for  this 
species  of  composition. 

Gellert  is  by  no  means  the  only  sacred  poet  of  whom 
Germany  boasts.  The  Hymns  of  Kleist,  Cramer,  Klop- 
stock,  Schlegel,  and  Herder,  have  received  high  praise. 


Descriptive  Poetry . 

The  Alptn  of  Baron  Haller,  published  in  1729,  is  a  de- 
scriptive poem  of  considerable  reputation.  The  Friihling  of 
Kleist  is  a  poem  of  still  more  distinguished  excellence. 
Though  not  equal  to  Thomson,  with  whom  he  has  been 
compared,  he  has  certainly  painted  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
scenes  in  nature,  in  just,  vivid,  and  beautiful  colours.  To 
these  may  be  added,  belonging  to  the  same  class,  the  Luise 
of  Voss,  and  the  Hermann  und  Dorothea  of  Goethe, 
which  are  generally  placed,  in  that  country,  in  the  first  order 
of  descriptive  poetry. 


Drama. 

A  tragedy,  entitled,  The  Grecian  Daughter,  is,  by  mis- 
take, ascribed  to  Moore,  in  p.  210.  He  published  no  dra- 
matic work  under  that  title. 

In  p.  211  there  is  an  erroneous  statement  respecting  co<- 
medy.  Several  of  Shakspeare's  comedies  are  purely  comic. 
His  tragedies  are  rather  chargeable  with  having  a  mixed  cha- 
racter than  his  comedies. — Dryden  also  wrote  several  un- 
mixed comedies. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  plays  of 
Farquhar,  on  account  of  their  licentious  character,  were 
seldom  played,  and  never  without  great  alterations.  They  are 
wholly  discontinued  on  the  American  stage. 

VOL.  II.  3Q 


482  Additional  Notes, 

Two  comic  productions  of  Mr.  Sheridan,  besides  his 
School  for  Scandal,  have  been  celebrated;  viz.  The  Rivals^ 
and  The  Critic.  Both  these  works,  and  especially  the  latter, 
are  considered  as  doing  honour  to  the  fertile  genius  of  the 
author. 

The  younger  Colman  is  entitled  to  a  place  among  the 
distinguished  comic  writers  of  Great-Britain,  at  the  close  of 
the  century  under  consideration.  He  is  said,  «by  some,  to  be 
inferior  only  to  Mr.  Sheridan.  His  Ways  and  Means,  his 
Surrender  of  Calais,  and  his  comic  opera  of  Inkle  and  Ya- 
rico,  have  commanded  much  popular  applause.  Some  of  his 
dramatic  pieces,  however,  are  said  to  be  tinctured  with  mis- 
chievous principles,  and  to  have  an  immoral  tendency ;  but 
of  the  nature  and  extent  of  these  faults  1  have  too  little  know- 
ledge to  be  able  to  speak  precisely. 

The  close  of  the  century  was  distinguished  by  the  drama- 
tic publications  of  Mies  Joanna  Baillie,  who  is  considered 
by  many  as  having  retrieved  the  declining  character  of  the 
age  with  respect  to  tragic  composition.  A  respectable  critic 
has  pronounced,  that,  "  for  lofty  poetry,  sublime  sentiment, 
and  true  pathos,  her  tragedies  stand  unquestionably  at  the 
head  of  every  modern  effort  of  the  tragic  muse." 

The  three  plays  of  Beaumarchais,  mentioned  in  page 
217,  form  one  story;  and  in  the  last  of  the  three,  the  crimes 
and  follies  of  the  characters  are  represented  as  punished. 

Besides  the  German  dramatists«mentioned  in  pages  220  and 
221,  there  are  several  others  who  deserve  respectful  notice. 
Schlegel,  Weisse,  Leisewitz,  and  Gerstenberg,  have 
produced  tragedies  of  high  reputation.  'Hie  tragedies  of 
Klopstock  are  also  represented  as  models  of  sublimity,  both 
in  sentiment,  language,  and  action. — In  comedy,  Cruger, 
Klinger,  Wetzel,  Grosmann,  and  Engel,  are  spoken 
of  as  having  merit  of  a  very  conspicuous  and  popular  kind. 
But  while  many  of  the  dramatic  productions  of  Germany, 
during  the  period  under  consideration,  stand  high  on  the  scale 
of  genius  and  taste,  some  of  them  deserve  to  be  reprobated 
as  replete  with  erroneous  sentiment,  and  as  being  most  per- 
nicious in  their  moral  tendency. 

The  character  of  the  drama  in  America,  towards  the  close 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  began  to  be  more  distinct  and  na- 
tional than  at  any  former  period.  Instead  of  waiting  altoge- 
ther for  the  productions  of  the  English  stage,  and  continu- 
ing to  be  its  servile  echo,  the  American  stage  has  exhibited  a 
considerable  number  of  original  pieces,  and  others  adopted 


Additional  Notes,  483 

from  the  French  and  German.  And  though  the  former  are 
not  equal  to  the  first  class  of  British  productions,  and  the 
moral  tendency  of  some  of  the  latter  has  been  questioned; 
yet  they  form  one  step  in  that  literary  progress  of  our  country 
-which  is  more  particularly  detailed  in  another  place. 

In  enumerating  the  peculiar  advantages  under  which  poetic 
compositions  -were  presented  during  the  last  age,  it  would  be 
improper  to  omit  taking  notice  of  the  illustration  of  poetic 
pictures  by  elegant  engravings,  and  other  appropriate  orna- 
ments. The  Shakspeare  Gallery,  the  plates  for  illustrating 
Milton,  Thomson,  and  many  other  distinguished  poets,  had 
certainly  no  equals  in  any  preceding  age. 


NOTES  ON  CHAPTER  XXII. 


Newspapers  in  the  United  States,  p.  251. 

AFTER  taking  much  pains  to  ascertain  the  number  of  news- 
papers printed  in  the  United  States,  the  author  is  enabled  to 
present  the  following  list.  He  dares  not  assert  that  it  is  ac- 
curate or  complete;  but  it  is  as  nearly  so  as  he  could  make  it. 
It  is  proper  to  observe,  however,  that,  as  the  materials  which 
form  it  were  collected  at  different  times  in  the  years  1801  and 
1802,  it  is  not  improbable  that  some  of  the  papers  mentioned 
have  been  since  discontinued,  and  others  established.  The 
real  number  may  certainly,  however,  be  considered,  in  the 
gross,  as  rather  greater  than  smaller  than  that  which  is  here 
presented. 

In  New-Hampshire  there  are  ten  newspapers;  viz.  three 
at  Portsmouth;  one  at  Concord;  one_at  Dover;  one  at  Gil- 
mantown;  one  at  Amherst ;  one  at  Keene;  one  at  Walpole ; 
and  one  at  Dartmouth.   They  are  all  published  once  a  week. 

In  Massachusetts  there  are  twenty-six  newspapers;  viz. 
five  in  Boston,  each  published  twice  a  week  :  two  in  Salem; 
two  in  Newbury  port;  two  in  Worcester  ;  one  in  Brookfidd; 
one  in  Springfield ;  one  in  Northampton ;  one  in  Piiisjield; 
one  in  Dedham ;  one  in  Stockbridge ;  one  in  New- Bedford; 
one  in  Haverhill;  one  in  Leominster ;  three  in  Portland; 


484  Additional  Notes. 

one  in  Augusta;  one  in  Castine;  and  one  in  Greenfield ; — 
all  published  weekly.  The  four  last  mentioned  towns  are  in 
the  Province  of  Maine. 

In  Rhode-Island  the  number  of  gazettes  has  not  been 
ascertained.  It  is  believed  there  are  four;  viz.  two  in  Pro- 
vidence, and  two  in  Newport,  each  published  twice  a  week. 

In  Connecticut  there  are  seventeen  newspapers;  viz. 
two  at  Hartford;  two  at  New-Haven ;  three  at  New-London ; 
two  at  Norwich ;  one  at  Wyndham ;  one  at  Stonington ;  one 
at  Litchfield;  one  at  Sharon ;  one  at  D anbury ;  one  at  Nor- 
walk;  one  at  Middletown;  and  one  at  Ntwfield.  All  these 
are  published  once  a  week. 

In  Vermont  there  are  eight  newspapers ;  viz.  one  at 
Bennington;  one  at  Rutland;  one  at  Vergennes ;  one  at 
Brattleborough ;  two  at  Windsor;  one  at  Peacham;  and 
one  at  Randolph; — all  published  weekly.  At  the  time  when 
this  list  was  communicated  to  the  author  (February,  1801), 
three  new  gazettes  were  talked  of;  viz.  one  each  at  Benning- 
ton, Burlington,  and  St.  Alban's. 

In  New-York  there  are  thirty-eight  newspapers;  viz.  in 
the  city  of  New-York  thirteen,  seven  published  daily,  four 
twice  a  week,  and  two  xveekly;  three  in  Albany,  each 
published  twice  a  week ;  one  at  Brooklyn ;  two  at  New- 
burgh;  two  at  Poughkeepsie ;  two  at  Kingston;  one  at 
Kaatskill;  three  at  Hudson ;  one  at  Troy ;  one  at  Lansing- 
burgh;  one  at  Salem ;  one  at  Waterford;  one  at  Johnstown  ; 
one  at  Herkemer;  one  at  Cooper  stoxvn;  one  at  Whitestown; 
one  2xRome;  one  at  Oswego ;  and  one  at  Canandarqua; — ■ 
all  printed  xveekly. 

In  New-Jersey  there  are  eight  newspapers;  viz.  two  at 
Trenton;  two  at  Newark;  one  at  Elizabeth-Town ;  one  at 
Brunswick;  one  at  Morristown;  and  one  at  Burlington. 
These  are  all  printed  weekly. 

In  Pennsylvania  the  number  has  not  been  accurately  as- 
certained. It  is  believed,  however,  to  be  about  twenty-eight. 
Of  these  five  or  six  are  published  daily ;  about  the  same  num- 
ber twice  a  week ;  and  the  remainder  weekly.  At  least  five 
of  the  newspapers  in  Pennsylvania  are  in  the  German  lan- 
guage. 

In  Delaware  there  are  three  newspapers;  viz.  two  in 
Wilmington,  published  twice  a  week ;  and  one  in  Dover,  pub- 
lished weekly. 

In  Maryland  there  are  fourteen  newspapers;  viz.  three 
in  Baltimore,    published  daily;    three  in  Washington,  of 


Additional  Notes.  485 

which  two  ave  puhlished  three  times  a  week,  and  one  weekly ; 
two  a.  Georgetown,  each  printed  three  times  a  week ;  and 
one  at  Annapolis;  one  at  Easton ;  two  at  Hagar^s-Town; 
and  two  at  Frederick-Town; — all  weekly  papers. 

Tn  Virginia  there  are  seventeen  newspapers;  viz.  two  at 
Alexandria,  published  daily;  three  at  Richmond,  each  three 
times  a  week;  two  at  Norfolk,  twice  a  week  ;  two  at  Peters- 
burg>h,  twice  a  week;  and  one  at  Fredericksburgh,  also  twice 
a  -TLk.  Besides  these,  there  are,  one  at  Fincastle;  one  at 
L-rsburg;  one  at  Lynchburg ;  one  at  Staunton;  one  at 
Martinsburg  ;  and  two  at  Winchester ; — all  weekly  papers. 

In  North-Carolina  there  are  eight  newspapers;  viz. 
tw7o  ar  Raleigh,  the  seat  of  government ;  one  at  Edenton ; 
one  at  Newbern ;  one  at  Wilmington ;  one  at  Halifax;  one 
at  Salisbury ;  and  one  at  Lincolnberg ; — all  weekly  papers. 

In  South-Carolina  the  number  of  newspapers  could 
not  he  ascertained  at  the  time  when  inquiry  was  made.  There 
are  probably  at  least  six  or  eight ;  perhaps  a  greater  number. 

In  Georgia  there  are  six  newspapers,  viz.  two  in  Savan- 
nah, one  of  which  is  published  twice  a  week,  and  the  other 
weekly;  two  at  Augusta,  each  weekly ;  and  one  weekly  pa- 
per each  at  Louisville  and  at  Washington. 

In  Kentucky  there  are  four  newspapers ;  viz.  two  at 
Lexington;  one  at  Frankfort ;  and  one  at  Louisville ; — all 
weekly  papers. 

In  Tennessee  there  are  two  newspapers;  viz.  one  at 
Knoxville,  and  one  at  Nashville; — both  published  weekly. 

In  the  State  of  Ohio  there  is  at  least  one  newspaper, 
printed  at  Chillicothe ;  and  probably  one  or  two  more. 

In  the  Mississippi  Territory  there  is  one  newspaper, 
printed  weekly  at  the  city  of  Natchez. 

There  are,  then,  in  the  United  States,  about  200  news- 
papers. Of  these  at  least  seventeen  are  printed  daily,  seven 
three  times  a  week,  thirty  twice  a  week,  and  one  hundred  and 
forty-six  weekly. 

The  statement  in  p.  251  differs,  in  some  respects,  from 
that  which  is  here  given.  It  is  believed  that  the  latter  is  the 
more  correct. 


(     4S6     ) 
NOTES  ON  CHAPTER  XXIII. 


American  Philosophical  Society,  p.  259. 

JL  HE  following  brief  notices  respecting  the  rise  and  progress 
of  this  institution,  and  its  situation  in  1803,  are  extracted  from 
a  private  letter,  addressed  to  the  author  by  a  member  of  the 
association. 

"  In  the  year  1743  a  society  was  formed  in  Philadelphia, 
taking  the  name  of  The  American  Philosophical  Society.  Its 
most  early  and  active  members  were,  Benjamin  Franklin, 
Dr.  Thomas  Bond,  Rev.  Dr.  Francis  Alison,  Rev.  John 
Ewing,  Rev.  Dr.  William  Smith,  and  Mr.  David  Rit- 
tenhouse. 

"  In  the  year  1766  another  society  was  formed,  under  the 
name  of  The  American  Society  for  promoting  and  propa- 
gating useful  Knowledge  in  Philadelphia.  Among  its  most 
active  members  appear  to  have  been  Messrs.  Charles 
Thompson,  Edmund  Physick,  Isaac  Paschall,  Owen 
Biddle,  Moses  Bartram,  and  Isaac  Bartram. 

"  The  chief  business  of  the  former  of  these  societies  seems 
to  have  been  the  making  and  receiving  of  communications 
on  various  philosophical  subjects;  and  of  the  latter,  the  pro- 
posing and  discussing  of  questions  on  a  great  variety  of  sub- 
jects, chiefly  philosophical  and  political:  and  among  these  it 
is  impossible  not  to  discern  strong  symptoms  of  that  spirit  of 
freedom  which  was  soon  to  discover  itself  in  the  American 
revolution. 

"  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1769  these  two  societies 
united,  under  the  name  of  The  American  Philosophical  So- 
ciety, held  at  Philadelphia,  for  promoting  useful  Knowledge. 
The  elder  branch,  at  the  time  of  the  union,  contained  144 
members,  including  80  corresponding  members;  and  the 
younger  branch  contained  128  members.  Several  gentlemen, 
however,  were  at  this  time  members  of  both. 

"  The  society  was  incorporated,  by  an  act  of  the  Legislature 
of  Pennsylvania,  in  the  year  1780.  Aided  by  the  munifi- 
cence of  the  State,  and  liberal  donations  of  individuals,  they 
have  now  erected,  on  a  lot  of  ground  in  the  State-House 
square,  a  commodious,  and  not  inelegant  building,  where 
they  keep  their  museum  and  library,  and  hold  their  meetings. 


Additional  Notes.  487 

H  The  society  have  published  five  quarto  volumes  of  their 
Transactions.  Their  library,  chiefly  formed  by  the  benevo- 
lent donations  of  similar  societies  both  in  Europe  and  Ame- 
rica, and  of  individuals,  now  contains  upwards  of  1 300  vo- 
lumes. Their  museum  of  natural  history  is  not  yet  very  ex- 
tensive; but,  however,  contains  a  number  of  rare  and  valu- 
able specimens,  chiefly  of  the  fossil  or  mineral  kind.  Their 
philosophical  apparatus  is  still  in  an  infant  state,  but  pro- 
gressive. 

"  In  the  year  1786  Mr.  John  Hyacinth  de  Magellan, 
of  London,  made  a  donation  to  the  society  of  200  guineas, 
to  be  vested  in  a  permanent  fund,  to  the  end  that  the  interest 
arising  therefrom  should  be  annually  disposed  of  in  premiums, 
to  be  adjudged  by  the  society  "  to  the  author  of  the  best  dis- 
covery, or  most  useful  invention,  relating  to  navigation,  astro- 
nomy', or  natural  philosophy  (mere  natural  history  only  ex- 
cepted)." A  few  only  of  these  premiums  having  been  yet 
awarded,  this  fund  is  now  considerably  accumulated.  The 
society  have,  from  their  own  proper  funds,  offered  premiums, 
and  invited  candidates  to  make  communications  of  inventions 
or  improvements  relative  to  certain  specified  objects. 

"  With  respect  to  the  number  of  the  present  members  of  the 
society  I  cannot  speak  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  It  may, 
perhaps,  be  about  two  hundred,  of  whom  about  one  half 
may  be  foreigners,  about  forty  in  Philadelphia  and  its  vicinity, 
and  the  rest  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 

"  The  society,  I  may  say  with  truth,  is  at  present  in  a  pretty 
flourishing  condition.  Its  meetings  are  well  attended,  and 
every  part  of  its  business  conducted  with  regularity.  This, 
in  justice,  however,  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  zeal  and  activity 
of  a  very  few  of  its  members. 

"  The  society  have  no  other  funds  than  those  which  arise 
from  the  annual  contribution  of  two  dollars  from  each  of  its 
resident  members,  and  the  occasional  donations  of  liberal  in- 
dividuals." 


American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  p.  260. 

The  following  extract  of  a  letter  from  a  member  of  the 
Academy,  written  in  September,  1301,  will  give  the  reader 
a  comprehensive  view  of  the  history  of  this  institution,  and 
of  its  state  at  that  time. 

"  The  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  was  incor- 


488  Additional  Notes, 

porated  May  3,  1780.  The  first  meeting  was  on  the  30th 
of  the  same  month.  The  late  Governor  Bowdoin  was 
elected  President;  and  was  annually  re-elected  until  his  death, 
which  happened  November  6,  1790.  In  May,  1791,  the 
Hon.  John  Adams,  LL.  D.  was  elected  President,  and  has 
been  annually  re-elected  since,  in  the  year  1785  the  Aca- 
demy published  a  volume  of  their  Transactions  in  quarto. 
The  preface  to  this  volume,  the  incorporating  act,  and  sta- 
tutes of  the  Academy,  together  with  Mr.  Bowdoin's  inau- 
gural address,  which  it  contains,  will  give  full  information  of 
the  nature  and  objects  of  the  society,  and  of  its  situation  at 
that  time.  Though  the  volume  is  intrinsically  valuable  and 
well  executed,  and  was  offered  for  sale  at  the  moderate  price 
of  sixteen  shillings,  yet  it  had  a  very  limited  sale,  and  the 
publication  involved  the  Academy  in  a  debt,  which  occa- 
sioned no  small  embarrassment.  The  first  part  of  a  second 
volume  was,  however,  published  in  1793,  and  a  sufficient 
number  of  papers  have  been  some  time  past  selected  to  com- 
plete the  volume.     It  will  soon  be  published. 

"  The  present  funds  amount  to  about  7300  dollars,  vested  in 
different  descriptions  of  stocks.  Five  thousand  dollars  of  this 
sum  arises  from  a  donation  made  by  Count  Rum  ford  in  1 796 : 
the  interest  of  which  is,  by  the  terms  of  the  donation,  to  be 
*  applied  and  given,  once  every  second  year,  as  a  premium 
to  the  author  of  the  most  important  discovery  or  useful  im- 
provement which  shall  be  made  known  to  the  public  in  any 
part  of  the  continent  of  America,  or  in  any  of  the  American 
islands,  during  the  preceding  two  years,  on  Heat  or  on  Light.' 
The  Academy  have  voted,  that  at  their  meeting  in  May  next, 
and  afterwards  at  their  meeting  in  May  biennially,  they  will 
decide  on  the  discovery  or  improvement  which  shall  appear  to 
be  entitled  to  the  premium.  Notice  will  soon  be  published 
of  this  vote.  Count  Rumford's  donation  is  in  three  per 
cent,  stock.  The  residue  of  the  fund  arises  from  a  dona- 
tion of  c£l00,  given  by  Mr.  Bowdoin  in  his  will;  the  like 
sum  given  by  Josiah  Quincy,  Esq.  440  dollars  given  by 
the  General  Court  in  1787;  and  an  annual  assessment  of  two 
dollars  on  each  member.  The  sum  of  five  dollars  is  also 
paid  by  each  member  on  his  admission.  In  addition  to  the 
pecuniary  legacy,  Governor  Bowdotn  gave  to  the  Academy 
his  library,  consisting  of  about  twelve  hundred  volumes, 
with  liberty  to  sell  any  part  of  it,  the  proceeds  to  be  vested 
in  books.  About  six'  hundred  volumes  were  sold  under  this 
permission.  The  library  of  the  Academy  now  contains  about 


Additional  Notes.  489 

thirteen  hundred  volumes,  among  which  are  many  rare  and 
valuable  books.  Besides  Mr.  Bowdoin,  the  principal  do- 
nors are,  the  present  President  of  the  Academy,  Dr.  Frank- 
lin, and  M.  Veron,  who  was  a  suigeon  in  the  squadron  of 
M.  de  Ternay.  The  number  of  the  original  or  statute 
members  was  sixty-two.  One  hundred  and  sixty-one  mem- 
bers have  been  elected  since  the  commencement  of  the  insti- 
tution. There  are  now  living,  -of  the  whole  corps,  170; 
viz. 

Resident  members,  by  which  is  meant  those 

who  belong  to  the  commonwealth  95 

Resident  in  other  States  in  the  union  30 

Foreign  members  45 


Making  in  the  whole  170 

"  The  Academy  meets  four  times  annually ;  in  January  and 
May  at  Boston — in  August  and  September  at  Cambridge. 
Their  meetings  at  Boston  are  holden  in  an  apartment  lately 
assigned  for  their  accommodation  in  the  new  State-House, 
where  also  their  library  and  museum  are  deposited.  A  cata- 
logue of  the  books  in  the  library  is  in  preparation,  and  will 
soon  be  published.  It  has  been  sometimes  remarked  that  this 
society  has  been,  in  a  degree,  languid  in  its  operation,  and 
has  not  fully  satisfied  the  public  expectations.  Whatever 
justice  there  may  be  in  such  a  remark,  I  shall  not  now  at- 
tempt to  trace  the  source.  There  is  evidently  a  want  of  ex- 
citement j  and  the  public  ought  to  have  candour  enough  to 
take  part  of  the  blame  to  itself.  I  have  the  satisfaction, 
however,  to  observe,  that  there  appears,  of  late,  a  renewed 
and  more  lively  attention  among  its  members  to  the  concerns 
of  the  institution.  I  ought  to  have  mentioned,  among  the 
liberalities  of  the  General  Court,  the  plates  of  the  map  of 
the  commonwealth,  which  were  given  to  the  Academy  and 
to  the  Historical  Society.  The  donation  has  been  accepted, 
and  a  joint  committee  of  the  societies  have  lately  sold  the 
right  of  impression  for  seven  years  for  600  dollars,  to  be  paid 
to  the  societies  without  any  deduction. 


YOL.  II.  3R 


(     490     ) 

NOTES  ON  CHAPTER  XXVL 

German  Literature,  p.  330. 

1HE  pernicious  tendency* of  many  modern  German  publi- 
cations has  been  often  the  subject  of  remark  within  a  few- 
years  past.  That  works  of  solid  merit,  which  cannot  be  too 
generally  known  and  read,  are  every  year  published  in  that 
country,  is  not  denied;  but  that  a  considerable  number  daily 
issue  from  the  German  presses,  of  a  very  different  and  most 
pestiferous  character,  can  as  little  be  doubted.  A  late  writer, 
in  a  memoir  on  this  subject,  makes  the  following  striking  re- 
marks. How  far  they  are  just  or  otherwise  is  left  to  be  de- 
termined by  every  reader. 

"  After  all,  it  may  not  be  chimerical  to  suppose,  that  the 
general  reception  of  'the  German  writings,  the  universal  pre- 
valence of  the  German  taste,  and  the  love  of  the  wild  and 
gloomy,  are  not  to  be  accounted  for  from  ordinary  causes, 
and  have  in  them  more  weight  and  importance  than  are  usually 
attached  to   mere  matters  of  taste  and  criticism.     May  not 
these  be  among  the  elements  of  feverish  agitation  and  mighty 
change,  afloat,    by  the   permission  of  Providence,  for  pur- 
poses, to  us  inscrutable,  in  the  moral  system  ?      May  not  this 
revolution  in  taste  be  a  prelude  to  other  revolutions — a  small 
skirt  of  the  cloud,  like  a  man's  hand,  ushering  in  the  black- 
ening tempest?     Are  not  the  German  writings  calculated  to 
generate,    in  both  sexes,  a  ferocious  hardihood,  and  inde- 
pendence of  mind ;  a  dangerous  contempt  of  established  forms ; 
a  promptitude,  to  suffer  and  to  dare;  an  enthusiasm  of  cha- 
racter, fitting  them  for  seasons  of  energy,  of  exertions,  of 
privations,  dangers,  and  calamities  ?     It  is  natural  for  human 
blindness   and  inattention  to  overlook  the  instruments  and 
operations  by  which  Providence  prepares  and  fashions  great 
and  surprising  events.     It  is  the  folly  of  man  to  ascribe  too 
little  weight  and  importance  to  moral  causes ;  while  it  is  the 
course  of  Providence  (as  it  were,  on  purpose  to  humble  hu- 
man pride)   to  act  by  seemingly  minute  and  inefficient  causes. 
Who  knows,  then,  but  this  preternatural  appetite  for  the  ir- 
regular, the  indecorous,  the  boisterous,  the  sanguinary,  and 
the  terrific,  may  be  the  precursor  of  some  strange  moral  or 
political  convulsion?" — Transactions  of  the  Boj/al  Irish  Aea- 


Additional  Notes.  491 

demy,  vol.  vlii.  Reflections  on  the  Style  and  Manner  of  some 
late  German  Writers,  and  on  the  Tendency  of  their  Pro- 
ductions.    By  William  Preston,  Esq.  M.  R.  I.  A. 


American  Episcopate,  p.  368. 

Among  those  who  signalized  themselves  as  writers  in  favour 
of  the  introduction  and  support  of  an  American  Episcopate, 
the  name  of  Mr.  John  Vardill  ought  not  to  have  been 
omitted.  Mr.  Vardill  was  born  and  educated  in  the  city 
of  New-York.  In  the  year  1762  he  was  admitted  into  King's 
College,  as  it  was  then  called;  and  having  passed,  with  high 
reputation,  through  the  usual  course  of  academic  instruction, 
he  received  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  and  Master  of  Arts,  and 
remained  in  the  college  for  the  purpose  of  prosecuting  his 
studies,  preparatory  to  his  application  for  orders  in  the  Epis- 
copal Church. 

In  the  year  1773  he  was  elected  Fellow  of  the  College, 
and  Professor  of  Natural  Law  ;  and,  towards  the  conclusion 
of  that  year,  went  to  England  for  ordination,  where  he  has 
since  remained.  In  early  youth  he  discovered  a  very  con- 
siderable poetical  genius;  and  several  of  his  publications  in 
this  way,  at  different  periods  of  his  life,  have  been  received 
with  much  applause.  He  bore  a  conspicuous  part  as  a  writer 
at  the  commencement  of  the  contest  between  this  country 
and  Great-Britain;  and  in  the  dispute  relative  to  the  introduc- 
tion and  establishment  of  Bishops  of  the  Episcopal  Church. 


Dr.  Seabury.  p.  369. 

As  Dr.  Samuel  Seabury  was  the  first  Episcopal  Bishop 
that  ever  resided  in  the  United  States,  it  is  thought  proper  to 
present  the  following  additional  information  respecting  him, 
which  has  been  communicated  to  the  author  since  the  ac- 
count in  the  above-mentioned  page  was  printed. 

He  was  born  in  1728,  and  passed  through  the  regular 
course  of  education  in  Yale  College,  where  he  graduated  in 
1751.  In  1752  he  went  to  Scotland  for  the  purpose  of  s:u- 
dying  Medicine;  but  soon  afterwards  turning  his  attention  to 
Divinity,  he  went  to  London,  where  he  was  ordained  a  Dea- 
con, Dec.  21,  1753,  by  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  at  the  re- 
quest of  Thomas  Sherlock,  Bishop  of  London;   and  a 


492  Additional  Notes. 

few  days  afterwards,  Priest,  by  the  Bishop  of  Carlisle.  Be- 
sides remaining  in  Scotland  about  one  year,  he  spent  two 
or  three  months  at  the  University  of  Oxford. 

He  was  first  settled  in  the  ministry  at  Brunswick,  in  New- 
Jersey.  Here  he  remained  about  three  years.  From  Bruns- 
wick, in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1157,  he  removed  to  Ja- 
maica, on  Long-Island,  where  he  resided  until  December, 
1166;  thence  he  removed  to  Westchester,  in  the  State  of 
New-York.  In  this  place  he  remained  until  the  commence- 
ment of  the  revolutionary  war,  when  he  went  into  the  city 
of  New-York,  and  after  the  termination  of  this  controversy 
settled  in  Connecticut.  In  1777  he  received  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Divinity  from  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Dr.  Seabury  went  to  England,  in  1784,  to  obtain  con- 
secration as  Bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  Connecticut. 
Meeting,  in  South-Britain,  with  some  obstruction  to  the  ac- 
complishment of  his  wishes  (an  obstruction,  however,  en- 
tirely unconnected  with  personal  considerations),  he  went  to 
Scotland,  where,  in  the  month  of  November  in  that  year, 
he  was  consecrated  Bishop,  by  Messrs.  Robert  Kilgour, 
Arthur  Petrie,  and  John  Skinner,  nonjuring  Bishops 
of  Scotland. 

He  continued  for  a  number  of  years  after  this  period  to  re- 
side at  New- London,  and  to  discharge,  in  an  exemplary  man- 
ner, the  duties  of  his  office.  He  was  warmly  attached  to  the 
Episcopal  Church,  and  generally  esteemed  as  one  of  her  most 
zealous  and  able  defenders  in  America. — He  died  in  1796. 


American  Colleges,  p.  385. 

The  following  list  of  American  Colleges  has  been  made 
out  with  considerable  care.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as 
a  record  of  some  value,  not  only  for  gratifying  present  cu- 
riosity, but  also  for  future  reference. 

In  Massachusetts  there  are  three  Colleges,  viz. 

1.  Harvard  College,  or  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
This  is  the  oldest  institution  of  the  kind  in  North-America. 
It  was  founded  in  1638. 

In  1636  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  gave  c£400 
towards  the  support  of  a  public  school  at  Cambridge,  then 
called  Newtown.  Mr.  John  Harvard,  an  eminent  cler- 
gyman, dying  in  1638,  left  near  £8 00,  being  the  greater 
part  of  his  estate,  to  the  same  object.    In  consequence  of  this 


Additional  Notes.  493 

donation,  the  General  Court,  the  same  year,  enlarged  the 
plan,  and  extended  the  powers  of  the  institution,  and  gave 
it  the  name  of  Harvard  College.  Degrees  were  first  con- 
ferred in  the  year  1642. 

This  institution  has  to  acknowledge  the  munificence  of 
many  liberal  individuals.  In  1699,  the  Hon.  William 
Stoughton,  Lieutenant-Governor  of  the  province,  erected 
a  Hail  for  the  accommodation  of  students,  which  was  called 
by  his  name.  Holden  Chapel  was  erected  in  1745,  at  the 
expense  of  the  widow  and  daughters  of  Samuel  Holden, 
one  of  the  Directors  of  the  Bank  of  England.  Hollis-hall, 
erected  in  1762,  was  so  called  in  honour  of  Thomas  Hol- 
lis,  of  London,  who  made  numerous  and  large  benefactions 
to  the  College.  Besides  these,  the  donations  of  Thomas 
Hancock,  Drs.  Ezekiel  and  Abner  Hersey,  William 
Erving,  Esquire,  and  several  others,  were  liberal,  and  have 
contributed  to  extend  the  plan  and  usefulness  of  the  College. 
All  the  Professorships  bear  the  names  of  the  gentlemen  who 
either  gave  a  fund  for  their  support,  or  contributed  towards 
this  object. 

The  immediate  Officers  of  this  College  are,  a  President  (who 
is  at  present  the  Rev.  Dr.  Joseph  Willard)  ;  Hollis  Pro- 
fessor of  Divinity ;  Hancock  Professor  of  the  Hebrew 
and  Oriental  Languages;  Hollis  Professor  of  Mathematics 
and  Natural  Philosophy ;  Hersey  Professor  of  Anatomy 
and  Surgery ;  Hersey  Professor  of  the  Theory  and  Prac- 
tice of  Physic;  Erving  Professor  of  Chemistry  and  Ma- 
teria Me  die  a ;  and  four  Tutors. 

The  Board  of  Ove,  zeers  consists  of  the  Governor,  Lieute- 
nant-Governor;  the  members  of  the  Council  and  Senate,  and 
the  Ministers  of  the  Congregational  Churches  in  Boston, 
Cambridge,  Watertown;  Cliarlestown,  Boxbury  and  Dor- 
chester. 

The  number  of  Students  in  this  College  may  be  estimated, 
on  an  average,  from  180  to  200.  The  greater  part  of  these 
board  in  the  College.  The  expenses  necessarily  arising  to 
each  student  within  the  walls,  ?'.  e.  boarding,  tuition,  room- 
rent,  &c.  may  be  estimated  at  about  120  dollars  per  annum. 

The  course  of  Instruction  in  this  College  is  as  follows : 
First  year,  the  Students  read  Sallust,  Livy,  Horace,  Terence, 
Homer,  Xenophon;  besides  these,  they  attend  to  Rhetoric, 
Millot's  Elements  of  Universal  History,  Pike's  Arithmetic, 
Lowth's  Grammar,  French  and  Hebrew  languages,  Watts's 
Logic,  Morse's  Geography,  and  the  use  of  the  globes.  Second 


494  Additional  Notes. 

year,  Classics  as  before';  French  and  Hebrew  languages,  Logic, 
Geography,  Arithmetic,  and  History  continued ;  Locke  on 
the  Understanding,  Blair's  Lectures,  Mensuration,  and  Al- 
gebra. Third  year,  the  Classics  before  enumerated ;  French, 
Hebrew,  History,  and  Locke  continued ;  with  the  addition  of 
Euclid's  Elements,  Enfield's  Philosophy,  Trigonometry, 
Conic  Sections,  Mensuration  of  Heights  and  Distances,  Na- 
vigation, English  Composition,  and  Forensic  Disputations. 
Fourth  year,  Burlamaqui's  Elements  of  Natural  and  Po- 
litical Law,  Paley's  Philosophy,  Dialling,  Spheric  Geometry 
and  Trigonometry,  Ferguson's  Astronomy,  Doddridge's 
Theological  Lectures,  English  Composition,  &c. 

The  Library  is  the  largest  excepting  one,  in  the  United 
States.  It  consists  of  between  13,000  and  14,000  volumes. 
The  Philosophical  Apparatus  is  ample,  and  generally  said  to 
be  the  best  in  America.  The  Funds  are  large,  but  their  pre- 
cise amount  is  not  known.  The  annual  Commencement  is 
on  the  last  Wednesday  in  August.  At  the  end  of  the  year 
1800,  more  than  3,600  Students  had  received  the  honours 
of  the  institution. 

2.  Williams*  College.  This  institution  was  incorporated 
as  a  College  in  1793,  and  is  situated  in  Williamstown,  in  the 
County  of  Berkshire.  It  is  named  in  honour  of  Col. 
Ephraim  Williams,  who  died  in  1755,  and  who  left  a 
large  portion  of  his  estate  for  the  establishment  and  support  of 
a  seminary  of  learning.  This  seminary  was  first  incorpo- 
rated as  an  Academy  in  1785.  Its  plan  was  extended,  and  a 
Charter,  constituting  it  a  College,  given  in  the  year  before- 
mentioned. 

The  College  Buildings  are,  two  large  edifices  of  brick ; 
one  82  feet  long,  42  feet  wide,  and  four  stories  high;  con- 
taining 28  rooms  for  the  accommodation  of  students,  and  a 
Chapel:  the  other  104  feet  long,  38  feet  wide,  and  also  four 
stories  high ;  containing  32  rooms,  with  a  bed-room  and 
study  adjoining  to  each.  The  former  of  these  buildings  was 
erected  in  1788,  at  the  expense  of  1 1,700  dollars;  the  latter, 
in  1798,  at  the  expense  of  12,400  dollars.  Besides  these, 
there  are  a  dwelling-house  for  the  President,  and  a  large  and 
elegant  Church,  to  the  erection  of  which  the  Trustees  con- 
tributed, on  condition  that  the  officers  and  students  of  the 
College  should  always  be  accommodated  therein  on  the  Lord's 
days,  and  have  the  use  of  it  on  public  occasions. 

The  Funds  of  this  College  are  small,  consisting  of  money 
on,  interest,  amounting  to  about  3,500  dollars,  and  a  town- 


Additional  Notes.  495 

ship  of  land  in  the  province  of  Maine,  worth,  perhaps,  from 
7,000  to  10,000  dollars.  The  income,  from  tuition,  room- 
rent,  &c.  is  about  2,000  dollars  annually.  The  institution 
has  been  hitherto  supported  by  Col.  Williams's  donation, 
by  subscriptions  among  the  inhabitants  of  Williamstown  and 
its  vicinity,  by  the  product  of  a  lottery,  and  by  a  grant  of  two 
townships  of  land  in  the  province  of  Maine  by  the  Legislature 
of  the  Stare. 

The  Officers  of  this  College  are,  a  President  (who  is  at  pre- 
sent the  Rev.  Dr.  Ebenezer  Fitch)  and  four  Tutors.  The 
institution  is  governed  by  sixteen  gentlemen,  of  whom  the 
President  for  the.  time  being  is  one,  and  always  presides  at 
their  meetings. 

The  number  of  Students  at  the  close  of  the  year  1800  was 
S3.  They  are  boarded  in  the  College,  and  in  private  houses 
in  the  vicinity.  The  price  of  board,  tuition,  washing,  wood, 
&c.  amounts  annually  to  about  100  dollars. 

The  Library  consists  of  about  600  volumes.  Two  literary- 
societies  belonging  to  the  College  have  a  library  in  common, 
consisting  of  300  volumes  more.  The  Philosophical  Appa- 
ratus is  small;  but  well  selected  and  good,  so  far  as  it  goes. 
A  good  Telescope,  and  some  other  articles  are  much  wanted 
to  render  the  collection  tolerably  complete. 

The  Course  of  Instruction  is  nearly  similar  to  that  which 
was  detailed  as  taking  place  in  Harvard  College.  The 
principal  points  of  difference  are  the  following — There  ap- 
pears to  be  rather  less  attention  paid  to  Classic  literature  here 
than  at  Harvard.  Priestley's  Lectures  on  History  are 
studied,  by  the  Junior  class,  instead  of  Millot's  Elements; 
Edwards  on  the  Will,  by  the  Senior  class,  in  addition  to 
Locke  ;  and  in  some  instances  the  Senior  class  has  recited 
Dr.  Hopkins's  System  of  Theology;  in  others  Dodd- 
ridge's Lectures. 

The  annual  Commencement  is  on  the  first  Wednesday  of 
September;  and  at  the  close  of  the  year  1800  about  80 
students  had  received  the  honours  of  the  College. 

3.  Bcwdoin  College.  This  College  was  instituted  in 
1794.  It  is  situated  at  Brunswick,  in  the  Province  of  Maine; 
3nd  was  so  called  in  honour  of  the  late  Governor  Bowdoin. 

This  institution  is  yet  in  its  infancy.  There  are  a  Presi- 
dent (who  is  the  Rev.  Joseph  M'Kean),  lately  appointed, 
and  a  Professor  of  Languages.  With  respect  to  the  state  of 
the  funds,  the  number  of  the  students,  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion, &c.  no  information  has   been   obtained.     But  as  the 


496  Additional  Notes 

College  has  not  been  organized  more  than  three  or  four  years.* 
its  constitution  cannot  yet  be  very  complete  or  mature. 

In  New- Hampshire  there  is  one  College,  viz. 
Dartmouth  College,  which  was  incorporated  in  1769. 
This  seminary  is  situated  in  Hanover,  in  the  county  of  Graf- 
ton, and  derives  its  name  from  the  Earl  of  Dartmouth, 
one  of  its  principal  benefactors.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Eleazer 
Wheelock  was  the  founder,  and  the  first  President.  (See 
p.  374.)  The  first  College  buildings  were  erected  in  1770, 
and  a  large  addition  made  to  them  in  1786. 

The  Government  of  the  College  is  in  the  hands  of  twelve 
trustees,  seven  of  whom  make  a  quorum.  By  them  all  laws 
and  appointments  are  made,  and  to  them  the  officers  are  re- 
sponsible. 

The  Officers  are,  a  President  (who  is  at  present  Johi* 
Wheelock,  LL.  D.  the  son  of  the  first  President} ;  a  Pro- 
fessor of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  ;  a  Professor  of 
the  Latin  and  Greek  Languages;  a  Professor  of  Chemistry  and 
Medicine,  and  two  Tutors. 

The  Course  of  Instruction.  Students  must  be  qualified  for 
admission,  by  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  Testament,  of 
Virgil,  and  Cicero's  Orations,  and  of  the  principles  of  Arith- 
metic ;  artd  when  admitted,  usually  continue  four  years  be- 
fore they  receive  degrees.  The  Freshman  class  attend  to  the 
Greek  and  Latin  authors,  the  principles  of  composition,  cri- 
ticism, rhetoric,  &c.  The  Sophomore  class  to  Geography, 
Logic,  and  the  Mathematics.  The  Junior  class  to  Natural 
Philosophy,  Moral  Philosophy,  and  the  higher  branches  of 
the  Mathematics:  the  Sophomores  and  Juniors,  both  continu- 
ing to  devote  a  portion  of  their  time  to  the  Classics.  The  Se- 
nior class  attend  to  Metaphysics,  the  principles  of  Civil  Law, 
Divinity,  Chemistry,  and  Natural  History. 

The  Funds  of  this  College  consist  chiefly  of  lands  granted 
by  New-Hampshire  and  Vermont,  most  of  which  are  still  un- 
productive.    Of  these  lands  there  are  about  40,000  acres. 

The  College  Library  consists  of  about  3,000  volumes. 
The  Philosophical  Apparatus  is  sufficient  for  a  common 
course  of  experimental  philosophy. 

The  number  of  Students  in  1801  was  140.  The  greater 
part  of  these  are  accommodated  in  the  College.  The  annual 
expense  of  each  individual,  including  boarding,  tuition,  &c. 
except  cloathing  and  other  contingencies,  is  about  100  dollars. 
In  1801  eight  hundred  students  had  graduated  at  this  Col- 
lege since  its  establishment. 


Additional  Notes.  4i)7 

In  Rhode-Island  there  is  one  College,  viz. 

Rhode-Island  College.  The  charter  for  this  seminary  was 
obtained  in  1764.  The  Rev.  James  Manning,  of  New- 
Jersey,  had  the  principal  agency  in  founding  it,  and  was  cho- 
sen the  first  President.  The  College  edifice  was  erected  in. 
1770.  It  is  a  spacious  building,  150  feet  long,  46  feet  wide, 
and  four  stones  high,  and  contains  56  apartments. 

The  Government  of  the  College  is  vested  in  a  Board  of 
Trustees.  The  immediate  Officers  are,  a  President,  Professor 
of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy,  Professor  of  Law, 
and  three  Tutors. 

The  Funds  of  this  institution'are  small,  amounting  to  little 
more  than  eight  thousand  dollars,  chiefly  raised  by  subscrip- 
tion. 

The  Philosophical  Apparatus  is  tolerably  complete.  It 
has  lately  received  considerable  accessions  by  the  liberality  of 
Samuel  Elam,  Esq.  of  New-Port.  The  Library  contains 
about  3000  volumes. 

The  number  of  students  in  1801  was  107.  They  are  chiefly 
boarded  in  the  College;  and  the  necessary  annual  expense  of 
each  is  about  100  dollars. 

There  is  by  no  means  a  general  taste  for  literature  in  this 
State.  Of  the  107  students  above  mentioned  only  12  be- 
longed to  the  State.  The  greater  part  of  the  rest  were  from 
Massachusetts,  and  a  number  from  the  southward,  especially 
from  South-Carolina. 

In  Connecticut  there  is  one  College,  viz. 

Yale  College,  at  New-Haven.  This  institution  was  in- 
corporated in  1701,  and  was  the  third  College  established  in 
the  American  Colonies.  It  received  this  name  in  honour  of 
Thomas  Yale,  Esq.  who  had  been  Governor  of  Fort  St. 
George,  in  India,  and  who  was  one  of  its  liberal  benefactors. 

The  Officers  of  this  College  are,  a  President  (now  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Timothy  Dwight);  a  Professor  of  Divinity; 
Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philosophy  ;  Professor 
of  Oriental  Languages;  and  three  Tutors. 

The  number  of  Students  in  this  College  is  believed  to  be 
greater  than  in  any  other  in  the  United  States.  In  1801  they 
amounted  to  217;  and  the  number  since  that  time  has  pro- 
bably increased.  The  students  are  chiefly  boarded  in  the 
College,  and  the  annual  expense  attending  the  accommoda- 
tion of  each  is  from  120  to  150  dollars. 

The  College  Buildings  are  spacious  and  elegant.    The  Li- 

VOL.   II.  3S 


498  Additional  Notes. 

brary  consists  of  between  3,000  and  4,000  volumes.  The 
Philosophical  Apparatus  is  considered  among  the  best  in  our 
country.  The  Funds  are  large,  but  the  amount  of  them 
is  not  known  to  the  writer. 

The  annual  Commencement  is  on  the  second  Wednesday 
of  September;  and  the  number  of  students  who  had  gradu- 
ated at  this  College,  at  the  end  of  the  year  1800,  was  about 
2,600. 

The  State  of  Vermont  has  one  College,  viz. 

Middlebury  College,  situated  in  the  town  of  Middlebury, 
in  Addison  County.  This  seminary  was  founded  in  1800, 
and  is  yet  in  an  infant  state. 

The  Government  of  this  College  is  vested  in  a  Board  of 
Trustees,  consisting  of  sixteen  gentlemen.  The  Officers  in 
1801  were,  a  President  (the  Rev.  Mr.  J.  Atwater),  and 
a  Tutor.  One  or  more  Professors  have  probably  been  elected 
since. 

The  Funds  consist  chiefly  of  lands,  which,  though  little 
productive  at  present,  promise  hereafter  to  afford  an  ample 
support  to  the  institution. 

The  number  of  Students  in  the  College,  and  Grammar 
School  annexed  to  it,  was,  in  1801,  about  30.  Since  that 
time  it  is  believed  they  have  increased.  They  are  all  boarded 
in  private  houses.  The  annual  expense  of  each,  including 
boarding,  washing,  tuition,  die.  is  from  80  to  90  dollars. 

The  Library  is  small,  but  increasing.  The  Philosophi- 
cal Apparatus  is  incomplete  ;  but  measures  have  been  adopted 
to  render  it  less  so ;  and,  on  the  whole,  the  institution  has 
a  prospect  of  becoming,  at  no  great  distance  of  time,  exten- 
sively useful. 

New-York  has  two  Colleges,  viz. 

1.  Columbia  College,  in  the  city  of  New- York.  This  in- 
stitution was  founded  in  1754,  under  the  title  of  King's  Col- 
lege, which  name,  after  the  Revolution,  was  exchanged  for 
the  one  which  it  now  bears.     (See  p.  355  of  this  volume.) 

This  College  is  under  the  direction  of  a  Board  of  Trustees. 
The  immediate  officers  are,  a  President  (at  present  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Benjamin  Moore,  Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  State  of  New- York)  ;  a  Professor  of  Moral 
Philosophy,  Logic,  Rhetoric,  and  Belles  Lettres ;  a  Professor 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Languages,  and  of  Grecian  and  Ro- 
man Antiquities ;  a  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Natural  Philo* 


Additional  Notes.  499 

sophy,  Chronology,  and  Geography  ;  and  a  Professor  of  Che- 
mistry. Besides  these,  there  are  in  the  Medical  School  attached 
to  the  College,  a  Dean  of  Faculty ;  a  Professor  of  Anatomy 
and  Surgery ;  a  Professor  of  the  Institutes  of  Medicine ;  a 
Professor  of  Obstetrics ;  and  a  Professor  of  Materia  Medica 
and  Botany. 

To  qualify  Students  for  admission  into  this  College,  it  is  ne- 
cessary that  they  should  be  able  to  read  the  four  Gospels  in 
Greek,  together  with  four  books  of  Virgil's  JEneid,  four 
books  of  Ccesar's  Commentaries,  and  four  Orations  of  Cicero 
against  Cataline. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  this  College  is  as  follows: 

The  first  year,  Sallust,  Livy,  two  books  of  VirgiUs 
Gcorgics,  part  of  the  Xezv-Testament  in  Greek,  from  20  to 
30  Dialogues  of  Lucian,  and  two  books  (generally)  of  Xeno- 
phon.  To  these  are  zdded,  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  a  small  por- 
tion of  Euclid,  and  Latin  Composition. 

The  second  year,  Virgil's  Georgics  finished,  Horace's 
Odes,  and  part  of  his  Satires,  the  Orations  of  Demosthenes, 
an  additional  portion  of  Xenophon,  and  two  books  of  Homer. 
With  these  are  mingled,  English  Grammar,  six  books  of 
Euclid,  Modern  Geography,  Trigonometry,  with  its  varioug 
applications  to  Surveying,  Navigation,  &c.  Latin  and  English 
Composition. 

The  third  year,  Horace's  Epistles  and  Art  of  Poetry,  six 
books  of  Homer,  Conic  Sections,  Spheric  Trigonometry,  with 
its  application  to  Astronomical  problems,  Ancient  Geogra- 
phy, Rhetoric,  and  English  Composition. 

The  fourth  year,  Natural  Philosophy,  Logic,  and  Moral 
Philosophy,  Terence,  Longinus,  Chemistry,  and  English 
Composition.  Public  speaking  once  a  week  through  the 
whole  course. 

It  is  believed  that  there  is  no  other  College  in  the  United 
States,  in  which  the  Greek  and  Latin  Languages  are  studied 
with  so  much  care,  and  to  such  an  extent  as  in  this  institution. 

This  College  has  a  Library,  consisting  of  about  3000  vo- 
lumes. Its  Philosophical  Apparatus  is  among  the  best  in 
the  United  States.  The  number  of  matriculated  Students  is 
about  125.  Besides  these,  there  are  the  Students  in  the  Me- 
dical School,  and  some  others,  who  sustain  a  less  formal  con- 
nection with  the  institution. 

2.  Union  College,  at  Schenectady.  This  College  was 
founded  in  1795,  and  though  its  growth  has  not  beea  very 
rapid,  it  bids  fair  to  be  an  useful  institution. 


500  Additional  Notes. 

The  College  Officers  are,  a  President  (now  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Maxcey)  5  a  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Natural  Philo- 
sophy ;  and  two  Tutors. 

The  number  of  Students  in  1801  was  about  43.  They 
were  at  that  time  boarded  in  private  families ;  but  are  now  ac- 
commodated in  the  College  edifice,  which  is  spacious  and 
convenient. 

The  Library  consists  of  800  volumes.  The  Philosophi- 
cal Apparatus  is  a  respectably  large  and  good  one.  The 
Funds  of  the  institution  are  small. 

The  State  of  New-JePvSey  has  one  College,  viz^ 

Nassau-Hall,  or  the  College  of  New- Jersey,  at  Princeton. 
This  College  was  founded  in  1746,  at  Elizabeth- Town,  from 
which  place  it  was  removed  in  1747  to  New- Ark,  and  in 
1757  to  Princeton,  where  it  has  since  continued.  About  this 
time  the  large  College  edifice  was  erected,  180  feet  long, 
54  feet  wide,  and  four  stories  high  ;  capable  of  accommodat- 
ing a  large  number  of  Students.  (See  Chapter  xxvi.  p.  345, 
of  this  work.) 

This  building,  together  with  the  Library,  much  of  the 
Philosophical  xipparatus,  6cc.  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  1802.  Since  that  time,  however,  by  the 
aid  of  liberal  benefactions  from  every  part  of  the  United  States, 
it  has  been  rebuilt,  and  the  whole  institution  placed  under  new 
advantages  and  regulations,  which  promise  a  degree  of  re- 
spectability and  usefulness  greater  than  it  had  ever  before  at- 
tained. 

The  Government  of  this  College  is  vested  in  twenty-four 
Trustees,  including  the  President  of  the  College,  and  the  Go- 
vernor of  the  State  for  the  time  being.  The  Officers  of  the 
College  are,  a  President  (the  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  S.  Smith)  ; 
a  Professor  of  Languages  ;  a  Professor  of  Divinity  ;  a  Profes- 
sor of  Mathematics,  Natural  Philosophy  and  Chemistry  ;  and 
three  Tutors. 

The  Library  is  now  small ;  but  measures  have  been  lately 
taken,  which  will  probably  soon  render  it  one  of  the  largest 
and  best  College  Libraries  in  the  United  States.  The  Philo- 
sophical Apparatus  is  a  respectable  one,  and  also  likely  to  be 
improved. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  this  Seminary  is  not  accurately 
known  to  the  writer.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  this  is  one 
of  the  institutions  in  the  United  States  in  which  Classical 
learning  receives  more  than  usual  attention  ;  and  in  which,  be* 


Additional  Notes.  501 

sides  an  advantageous  mode  of  pursuing  most  of  the  objects  of 
study,  polite  literature  is  cultivated  with  great  success. 

The  number  of  Students  in  this  College  at  the  close  of  the 
year  1803,  amounted  to  about  150;  a  greater  number  than 
ever  before  belonged  to  the  institution.  They  are  chiefly 
boarded  in  the  College  edifice.  The  annual  expense  of  each 
is  not  certainly  known,  but  is  believed  to  be  from  150  to  170 
dollars. 

The  annual  Commencement  in  this  College  is  on  the  last 
Wednesday  of  September. 

In  Pennsylvania  there  are  three  Colleges,  viz.  ^ 

1.  The  University  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Philadelphia.  This 
institution  was  formed  in  1791,  by  the  union  of  the  College  of 
Philadelphia,  founded  in  1753,  (seepage  352)  and  another 
institution,  formed  immediately  after  the  Revolutionary  war, 
under  the  same  title  which  the   united  seminaries  now  bear. 

The  Officers  of  this  institution  are,  a  Provost  (this  place 
is  now  vacant),  who  is  also  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy; 
a  Vice-Provost,  who  is  also  Professor  of  Logic  and  Moral 
Philosophy  ;  a  Professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  Languages ;  a 
Professor  of  Mathematics;  a  Professor  of  English  and  Belies 
Lettres ;  and  a  Professor  of  Oriental  Literature.  Besides  these, 
the  instructors  in  the  Medical  School  are,  a  Professor  of  Ana- 
tomy ;  a  Professor  of  the  Institutes  and  Practice  of  Medicine  ; 
a  Professor  of  Materia  Medica,  Natural  History,  and  Botany  ; 
and  a  Professor  of  Chemistry.  This  Medical  School  is  much 
more  frequented  by  Students  than  any  other  in  the  United 
States.     (See  vol.  i.  p.  320.  and  vol.  ii.  p.  393.) 

The  Library  of  this  seminary  consists  of  about  1000  vo- 
lumes. The  Philosophical  Apparatus  is  tolerably  good.  The 
whole  number  of  Students  belonging  to  the  institution,  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1803,  was  about  160;  but  of  these  only  a 
small  portion  actually  belonged  to  the  classes  in  College. 

2.  Dickinson  College,  in  Carlisle.  This  College  was  founded 
in  the  year  1783,  and  received  the  name  which  it  bears  in 
honour  of  John  Dickinson,  Esquire,  the  celebrate.]  political 
writer,  and  its  most  liberal  benefactor.    (See  page  382.) 

The  Government  of  this  College  is  in  the  hands  of  a  Board 
of  Trustees.  The  Officers  are,  a  President  (now  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Niseet);  Vice-President;  and  two  Professors.  The  Li- 
brary consists  of  about  3000  volumes.  The  Philosophical 
Apparatus  is  small.  The  amount  of  the  Funds  is  not  known 
to  the  writer. 


502  Additional  Nota, 

The  number  of  Students  in  this  College  is  believed  to  be 
about  45  or  50.  They  are  boarded  in  private  families  in  the 
town. 

3.  Franklin  College,  in  Lancaster.  This  institution  was 
founded  in  1787,  for  the  particular  accommodation  of  the 
German  inhabitants  of  Pennsylvania,  to  enable  them  to  edu- 
cate their  youth  in  their  own  language,  and  in  conformity 
with  their  own  habits.  The  Principal  is  a  German  Lutheran, 
and  the  Vice-President  a  Calvinist.  Its  present  state  is  not 
known  to  the  writer;  but  it  is  believed  not  to  be  in  a  very 
flourishing  condition. 

In  Maryland  there  are  four  Colleges,  viz. 

1.  St.  Johns  College,  at  Annapolis.  This  College  was 
founded  in  the  year  1784;  and,  together  with  the  seminary 
which  will  be  next  mentioned,  forms  the  "  University  of 
Maryland." 

This  College  is  governed  by  twenty-four  Trustees.  Its  Offi- 
ce)^ are,  a  President  (now  John  M'Dowell,  Esq.)  and  two 
Professors.  Its  Funds  are  chiefly  derived  from  voluntary  sub- 
scription, and  an  annual  grant  of  c£i750  from  the  State,  aided 
by  the  income  from  the  Students  for  tuition.  Its  Library  is 
moderately  large;  and  its  Philosophical  Apparatus  only  toler- 
ably good. 

In  1801  the  number  of  Students  in  this  institution  was 
about  90. 

2.  Washington  College,  in  Chestertown,  instituted  in  1782, 
and,  like  the  preceding,  placed  under  the  direction  or  twenty- 
four  Visitors  or  Trustees.  In  1787  a  permanent  fund  was 
granted  to  this  institution,  by  a  law  of  the  State,  of  £\25Q 
a  year ;  which  has  been  since  continued.  No  other  particu- 
lars concerning  this  College  are  known  to  the  writer. 

3.  The  Catholic  College,  at  Georgetown,  on  the  Potow- 
mac.  This  institution  is  under  the  particular  direction  of  the 
Roman  Catholics,  who  form  a  considerable  part  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Maryland.  The  writer  has  not  been  so  happy  as  to 
succeed  in  his  attempts  to  obtain  particular  information  con- 
cerning this  seminary. 

4.  Cokesbury  College,  at  Abingdon,  in  Harford  county. 
This  College  was  founded  by  the  Methodist  Church  in  1785, 
and  intended  for  the  education  of  youth  belonging  to  that  com- 
munion. It  is  so  called  in  honour  of  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Coke,  and  the  Rev.  Francis  Asbury,  Bishops  of  the  Me- 
thodist Episcopal  Church.  No  particulars  are  known  to  the 
writer  respecting  the  Officers,  Funds,  number  of  Students*  &c. 


Additional  Notes*  505 

In  Virginia  there  are  two  Colleges,  viz. 

1.  JV ill iam  and  Mary  College,  at  Williamsburgh.  This 
institution  was  incorporated  in  1693,  by  King  William  and 
Queen  Mary,  whose  names  it  bears.  The  credit  of  obtain- 
ing the  Charter,  and  of  organizing  the  establishment,  is  due 
to  the  Rev.  James  Blair.  (See  p.  335.)  This  was  the  second 
College  founded  in  the  American  Colonies. 

The  governing  powers  in  this  College  are  vested  in  a  Board  of 
Visitors,  not  exceeding  twenty.  The  Officers  me,  a  President 
{now  the  Rev.  Dr.  Madison,  Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  in  the  State  of  Virginia),  who  is  also  Professor 
of  Moral  and  Natural  Philosophy ;  a  Professor  of  Mathematics ; 
a  Professor  of  Ancient  Languages;  a  Professor  of  Modern  Lan- 
guages ;  a  Professor  of  Law ;  and  a  Professor  of  Chemistry. 

In  the  Moral  School,  in  this  College,  the  course  consists 
of,  1.  Logic  and  the  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind.  On 
these  subjects,  the  works  of  Duncan,  Reid,  and  Professor 
Stewart  are  studied.  2.  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres.  Here 
Dr.  Blair's  Lectures  are  chiefly  used.  3.  Moral  Philosophy. 
In  this  department  the  author  studied  is  Paley.  4.  Natural 
Law.  Rutherforth  and  Burlamagui,  &c.  5.  Law  of 
Nations.  Vattel  and  Martens.  6.  Politics.  Locke, 
Montesquieu,  Rousseau,  &c.  7.  Political  Economy. 
Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations.  In  Natural  Philosophy  there 
is  a  regular  course  of  Lectures,  attended  with  every  necessary 
experiment.  In  this  course,  the  works  generally  referred  tc, 
and  recommended,  are  those  of  Rowning,  Helsham, 
Martin,  Desaguliers,  Muschenbroeck,  Cavallo, 
Adams,  Lavoisier,  Chaptal,  &c. 

In  the  department  of  Law,  the  Professor  takes  an  exten- 
sive view  of  the  general  principles  of  government;  comments 
on  the  great  work  of  Judge  Blackstone  ;  explains  the  struc- 
ture and  principles  of  the  American  governments,  and  parti- 
cularly of  the  government  of  Virginia.  In  teaching  the  an- 
cient and  modern  Languages,  the  usual  course  is  pursued. 
Though  all  the  Students  are  not  compelled  to  attend  to  the 
former,  yet  a  competent  knowledge  of  them  is  necessary  in 
order  to  the  taking  of  a  regular  degree. 

No  particular  period  of  residence  at  this  College  is  required. 
All  students  who  are  prepared  to  go  through  the  prescribed 
examination  mav  receive  its  honours. 

The  number  of  Students  in  this  College,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  year  1801,  was  53.  The  Library  contains  about  300O 
volumes.    The  Philosophical  Apparatus,  when  procured  in 


& n 4  Additional  Notes. 

1768,  was  well  chosen,  and  tolerably  complete.  It  cost,  at 
that  time,  between  2000  and  3000  dollars.  Having  been  in 
constant  use  for  more  than  30  years,  it  stands  in  need  of  re- 
pairs, and  is  less  complete  than  at  first. 

The  Funds  of  this  College  were  much  diminished  by  the 
Revolution.  They  now  amount  to  about  4500  dollars  per 
annum — derived  from  the  rents  of  certain  lands ;  a  certain 
proportion  of  Surveyor's  fees;  and  the  interest  of  monies 
loaned. 

There  is  probably  no  College  in  the  United  States  in  which 
political  science  is  studied  with  so  much  ardour,  and  in  which 
it  is  considered  so  pre-eminently  a  favourite  object,  as  in  this. 

2.  Hampden  Sidney  College,  in  Prince  Edward  County. 
This  seminary  was  founded  about  the  year  1774,  chiefly  by 
the  exertions  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  S.  Smith,  now  President 
of  the  College  of  New-Jersey. 

This  College  has  scarcely  any  Funds.  The  Philosophical 
Apparatus  is  small.  Its  Library  consists  of  about  500  vo- 
lumes. The  number  of  Students  may  be  estimated,  in  gene- 
ral, at  about  60  or  70. 

North-Carolina  has  one  College,  viz. 

The  University  of  North-Carolina,  in  Chapel-Hill,  Orange 
County.  This  institution  was  incorporated  in  1789  ;  and  the 
Legislature  of  the  State,  by  subsequent  acts,  made  large  grants 
for  its  support.  The  College  buildings  were  erected  in  1794; 
and  tuition,  it  is  believed,  was  commenced  in  1795. 

The  Funds  of  the  University  of  North-Carolina  are  large. 
They  consist  of  £  14,777  in  cash,  public  stock  and  bonds; 
of  all  the  property  in  the  State  which  is,  or  shall  hereafter  be 
escheated ;  of  94,000  acres  of  land,  in  different  parts  of  the 
State;  and  of  other  real  property  to  a  considerable  amount. 

No  other  particulars  concerning  this  institution  are  known 
to  the  writer. 

South-Carolina  has  four  Colleges,  viz. 

,1.  Winnesborough  College,  in  Winnesborough,  in  Fair- 
field County.  This  institution  was  founded  about  the  year 
1795.  It  is  yet  in  an  infant  state;  the  Funds,  number  of  Stu- 
dents, &c.  being  small. 

2.  A  College  in  the  city  of  Charleston.  This  was  insti- 
tuted about  the  same  time  with  the  preceding ;  but  has  not 
yet  attained  any  great  degree  of  respectability.  The  Trustees 
have,  in  a  few  instances,  conferred  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 


Additional  Notes.  504[ 

Arts ;  but  have  not,  it  is  believed,  attempted  to  bestow  literary- 
honours  of  an  higher  grade. 

3.  A  College  at  Cambridge,  in  the  district  of  Ninety-six. 
This  was  incorporated  at  the  same  time  with  the  two  last  men- 
tioned seminaries ;  but  it  has  dwindled  into  an  unimportant 
school. 

4.  A  College  at  Beaufort,  also  incorporated  about  the 
year  1795.  This  institution  has  yet  been  scarcely  organized; 
but  agreeable  anticipations  are  formed  of  its  respectability  and 
usefulness. 

The  reason  why  no  College  in  this  State  has  risen  to  much 
respectability  is,  that  the  Legislature,  instead  of  directing  their 
aid  and  patronage  to  one,  which,  under  these  circumstances, 
might  have  flourished,  have  divided  their  attentions  and  grants 
among  several.  The  consequences  have  been  very  unfriendly 
to  the  progress  of  literature. 

Georgia  has  one  College,  viz. 

The  University  of  Georgia,  founded  in  1785.  This  in- 
stitution is  not  yet  fully  organized.  Liberal  provision  has 
been  made  by  the  State  for  its  support;  and  when  the  build- 
ings and  other  arrangements  shall  be  completed,  it  bids  fair  to 
be  an  extensively  useful  seminary. 

Kentucky  has  one  College,  viz. 

The  Transylvania  College,  or  University,  at  Lexington. 
This  seminary  was  formed  by  the  union  of  two  academies  in 
December,  1798,  and  styled  by  the  act  of  union  the  Tran- 
sylvania University. 

The  Government  of  this  institution  is  vested  in  a  Board  of 
Trustees.  The  Officers  are,  a  President  (at  present  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Moore),  who  is  also  Professor  of  Logic,  Metaphysics, 
Moral  Philosophy,  and  Belles  Lettres  ;  a  Professor  of  Mathe- 
matics, Natural  Philosophy,  Astronomy,  and  Geography  ;  a 
Professor  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Languages ;  a  Professor  of 
Law ;  a  Professor  of  Medicine  and  Surgery ;  and  a  Professor 
of  Chemistry. 

The  Funds  of  this  University  consist  chiefly  of  lands,  and 
may  be  considered  as  amounting  to  179,000  dollars.  The 
Library  consists  of  more  than  1300  volumes  ;  besides  a  Law 
Library,  and  a  Medical  Library,  for  the  Students  of  Law  and 
Medicine.  The  Philosophical  Apparatus  is  respectable,  and 
measures  have  been  taken  to  render  it  still  more  so. 

The  number  of  Students  at  this  seminary,  in  1801,  was 

VOL.   11.  -       3T 


G06  Additional  Notes. 

about  70.  Of  these  19  were  Students  of  Law,  and  six  of 
Medicine.  The  annual  expense  of  boarding,  tuition,  &c.  is 
from  80  to  100  dollars. 

Tennessee  has  one  College,  viz. 

Greenville  College,  founded  in  the  year  1794.  The  Funds 
of  this  institution  are  very  small.  It  has  a  Library,  consist- 
ing of  2000  volumes;  a  good  Philosophical  Apparatus,  and 
about  20  Students. 

The  Officers  of  the  College  are,  a  President  (at  present  the 
Rev.  Hezekiah  Balch),  and  one  other  Professor. 


American  Editions  of  the  Bible,  p.  387. 

I  have  lately  ascertained  that,  prior  to  Aitken:s  edition  of 
the  Bible,  in  1781,  there  was  an  excellent  edition  of  the  Ger- 
man Bible,  in  Quarto,  printed  in  the  year  1776,  by  Chris- 
topher Sower,  of  Germantown,  near  Philadelphia.  Mr. 
Sower  was  a  man  of  large  property,  and  occasionally  a 
preacher  in  the  German  Churches  in  Pennsylvania.  He  un- 
dertook and  executed  this  work  at  his  own  risk,  and  had  the 
honour  of  printing  the  first  Quarto  Bible  that  ever  issued  from 
an  American  press.  It  is  one  of  the  best  specimens  of  typo- 
graphy that  our  country  has  produced. 


NOTES  ON  THE  RECAPITULATION. 

Reciting,  instead  of  Printing,  among  the  Ancients,  p.  41 7. 

It  is  well  known,  that  the  ancients,  being  ignorant  of  the 
art  of  printing,  were  obliged  to  employ  public  rehearsals  as 
the  best  means  of  publishing  new  compositions.  In  early  times 
this  was  the  case  with  writers  of  the  first  class.  Herodo- 
tus recited  his  history  in  different  portions,  at  the  Olympic 
Games;   and  other  writers  of  great  reputation  did  the  same. 

Tacitus  speaks  in  the  following  language  of  the  author, 
who  is  obliged  to  employ  this  method  of  publishing  his  works. 
"  Cum  toto  anno,  per  omnes  dies,  magna  noctium 


Additional  Notes.  501. 

parte,  unum  librum  extudit  et  elucubravit,  rogare  ultro  et  am- 
Lire  cogatur,  ut  sint,  qui  dignentur  audirc :  et  ne  id  quidem 
gratis:  nam  et  domum  mutuatur,  et  auditorium  extruit,  et 
subsellia  conducit,  et  libellos  dispergit :  et  ut  beatissimus  re- 
citationem  ejus  eventus  prosequatur,  omnis  ilia  laus  intra  unum 
aut  alterum  diem,  velut  in  herba  vel  flore  pvaecepta,  ad  nullam 
certam  et  solidam  pervenit  frugem  :  nee  aut  amicitiam  inde  re- 
fert,  aut  clientelam,  aut  mansurum  in  animo  cujusquam  bene- 
ficium,  sed  clamorem  vagum,  et  voces  inanes,  et  gaudium  vo- 
lucre." — C.  Cornelii  Taciti  Dial,  de  Oratoribus.  ix. 

Pliny,  in  one  of  his  Letters,  gives  a  lively  description  of 
the  disadvantages  which  authors  had  to  encounter  in  this  mode 
of  publishing  their  compositions. 

"  Magnum  proventum  poetarum  annus  hie  attulit.  Toto 
mense  Aprili  nullus  fere  dies,  quo  non  recitaret  aliquis.  Ta- 
metsi  ad  audiendum  pigre  coitur.  Plerique  in  stationibus  se- 
dent,  tempusque  audiendi  fabulis  conterunt,  ac  subinde  sibi 
nuntiari  jubent,  an  jam  recitator  intraverit,  an  dixerit  praefa- 
tionem,  an  ex  magna  parte  evolverit  librum?  Turn  demum, 
ac  tunc  quoque  lente,  cunctanterque  veniunt,  nee  tamen  re- 
manent, sed  ante  finem  recedunt ;  alii  dissimulanter,  ac  fur- 
tim;  alii  simpliciter,  ac  libere.  Sed  tanto  magis  laudandi  pro- 
bandique  sunt,  quos  a  scribendi  recitandique  studio  hsec  audi- 
torum  vel  desidia,  vel  superbia  non  retardat.  Equidem  prope 
nemini  defui :  his  ex  causis  longius,  quam  destinaveram,  tem- 
pus  in  urbe  consumpsi.  Possum  jam  repetere  secessum,  et 
scribere  aliquid,  quod  non  recitem;  ne  videar,  quorum  recita- 
tionibus  affui,  non  auditor  fuisse,  sed  creditor.  Nam,  ut  in 
ceteris  rebus,  ita  in  audiendi  officio,  perit  gratia,  si  reposcatur." 
PU71.  lib.  i.  Ep.  13. 

The  poets  who  could  not  obtain  an  audience  otherwise, 
frequented  the  baths,  and  other  public  places,  in  order  to  fas^ 
ten  on  their  friends,  and  procure  an  opportunity  of  reciting 
their  compositions.  Juvenal  tells  us,  that  the  groves  and 
marble  columns  of  Julius  Fronio  resounded  with  the  vocife- 
rations of  the  reciting  poets. 

Frontonis  platani,  convulsaque  marmora  clamant 
Semper,  et  assicluo  ruptae  lectore  columnar 
Exspectes  eadeni  a  summo,  minimoque  poeta. 

Sat.  i.  ver.  12. 

The  same  satirist  suggests,  that  the  poet  who  wished  hi* 
works  to  become  known,  might  borrow  an  house  for  the 
purpose  of  public  reading;  and  that  the  person  who  accom- 


508  Additional  Notes. 

modated  the  writer,  might  place  his  friends  and  freedmen  on  the 
back  seats,  with  directions  to  be  liberal  in  their  applause. 


Et  si  dulcedine  famae 


Succensus  recites,  Maculonus  commodat  aedes. 
Scit  dare  libertos  extrema  in  parte  sedentes 
Ordinis,  et  magnas  comitum  disponere  voces. 
Nemo  dabit  regum,  quanti  subsellia  constent. 

Sat.  vii.  ver.  39. 

In  another  place,  speaking  of  Statius,  a  popular  poet,  he 
says: 

Curritur  ad  vocem  jucundam,  et  carmen  arnicas 
Thebaidos,  lxtam  fecit  cum  Statius  urbem, 
Promisitque  diem ;  tanta  dulcedine  captos 
Afficit  ille  animos,  tantaque  libidine  vulgi 
Auditur ;  sed  cum  fregit  subsellia  versu, 
Esurit,  intactam  Paridi  nisi  vendat  Agaven. 

Sat.  vii.  ver.  82. 

From  a  passage  in  Horace  it  would  seem  that,  in  his  day, 
writers  of  the  first  class  disdained  to  employ  this  method  of 
obtaining  literary  fame. 

Kon  recito  cuiquam,  nisi  amicis,  idque  coactus ; 
Nori  ubivis,  coramve  quibuslibet.     In  medio  qui 
Scripta  foro  recitent,  sunt  multi ;  quique  lavantes ; 
Suave  locus  voci  resonat  conclusus.     Inanes 
Hocjuvat,  haud  illud  quserentes,  num  sine  sensu, 
"Tempore  num  faciant  alieno. 

Sat.  lib.  i.  Sat.  iv.  ver.  73. 


Influence  of  Printing,  p.  418. 

The  following  remarks  of  Professor  Stewart,  on  the  pro- 
bable influence  of  printing  upon  the  future  interests  of  society, 
•are  worthy  of  attention.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the 
truth  or  falsehood  of  the  opinions  which  they  express,  they 
afford  to  the  contemplative  mind  materials  for  very  interesting 
reflections. 

"  The  influence  which  printing  is  likely  to  have  on  the  fu- 
ture history  of  the  world,  has  not',  I  think,  been  hitherto  ex- 
amined, by  philosophers,  with  the  attention  which  the  im- 
portance of  the  subject  deserves.  One  reason  for  this  may, 
probably,  have  been,  that,  as  the  invention  has  never  been 
made  but  once,  it  has  been  considered  rather  as  the  effect  of  a 
fortunate  accident,  than  as  the  result  of  those  general  causes 
on  which  the  progress  of  society  seems  to  depend.     But  it 


Additional  Notes,  509 

may  be  reasonably  questioned,  ho\y  for  this  idea  be  just :  for, 
although  it  should  be  allowed  that  the  invention  of  printing 
was  accidental,  with  respect  to  the  individual  who  made  it,  it 
may,  with  truth,  be  considered  as,  the  natural  result  of  a  state 
of  the  world,  when  a  number  of  great  and  contiguous  nations 
are  all  engaged  in  the  study  of  literature,  in  the  pursuit  of 
science,  and  in  the  practice  of  the  arts :  insomuch,  that  I  do 
not  think  it  extravagant  to  affirm,  that,  if  this  invention  had 
not  been  made  by  the  particular  person  to  whom  it  is  ascribed, 
the  same  art,  or  some  analogous  art,  answering  a  similar  pur- 
pose, would  have  infallibly  been  invented  by  some  other  per- 
son, and  at  no  very  distant  period.    The  art  of  printing,  there- 
fore, is  entitled  to  be  considered  as  a  step  in  the  natural  history 
of  man,  no  less  than  the  art  of  writing ;  and  they  who  are 
sceptical  about  the  future  progress  of  the  race,  merely  in  con- 
sequence of  its  past  history,  reason  as  unphilosophically  as  the 
member  of  a  savage  tribe,  who,  deriving  his  own  acquaint- 
ance with  former  times  from  oral  tradition  only,  should  affect 
to  call  in  question  the  efficacy  of  written  records,  in  accele- 
rating the  progress  of  knowledge  and  of  civilization. 

"  What  will  be  the  particular  effects  of  this  invention, 
(which  has  been,  hitherto,  much  checked  in  its  operation,  by 
the  restraints  on  the  liberty  of  the  press  in  the  greater  part  of 
Europe)  it  is  beyond  the  reach  of  human  sagacity  to  conjec- 
ture; but,  in  general,  we  may  venture  to  predict  with  confi- 
dence, that,  in  every  country,  it  will  gradually  operate  to 
widen  the  circle  of  science  and  civilization ;  to  distribute  more 
equally,  among  all  the  members  of  the  community,  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  political  union,  and  to  enlarge  the  basis  of 
equitable  governments,  by  increasing  the  number  of  those  who 
understand  their  value,  and  are  interested  to  defend  them. 
The  science  of  legislation,  too,  with  all  the  other  branches 
of  knowledge  which  are  connected  with  human  improve- 
ment, may  be  expected  to  advance  with  rapidity ;  and,  in 
proportion  as  the  opinions  and  institutions  of  men  approach  to 
truth  and  to  justice,  they  will  be  secured  against  those  revo- 
lutions to  which  human  affairs  have  always  been  hitherto  sub- 
ject. Opinionwn  mini  commenta  delet  dies,  natura  judicia 
confirmat" 

"  Nor  must  we  omit  to  mention  the  value  which  the  art  of 
printing  communicates  to  the  most  limited  exertions  of  literary 
industry,  by  treasuring  them  up  as  materials  for  the  future  ex- 
amination Of  more  enlightened  inquirers.  In  tin's  respect  the 
press  bestows  upon  the  sciences  an  advantage  somewhat  ana- 


310  Additional  Notes. 

logous  to  that  which  the  mechanical  arts  derive  from  the  divi- 
sion of  labour.  As  in  these  arts,  the  exertions  of  an  unin- 
formed multitude  are  united  by  the  comprehensive  skill  of  the 
artist,  in  the  accomplishment  of  effects  astonishing  by  their 
magnitude,  and  by  the  complicated  ingenuity  they  display ; 
so,  in  the  sciences,  the  observations  and  conjectures  of  ob- 
scure individuals  on  those  subjects  which  are  level  to  their  ca- 
pacities, and  which  fall  under  their  own  immediate  notice, 
accumulate  for  a  course  of  years ;  till  at  last  some  philosopher 
arises,  who  combines  these  scattered  materials,  and  exhibits, 
in  his  system,  not  merely  the  force  of  a  single  mind,  but  the 
intellectual  power  of  the  age  in  which  he  lives. " — Elements 
of  the  Philosophy  rf  the  Human  Mind>  Chap.  iv.  Sect.  8. 

I  agree  with  the  Professor  in  thinking,  that  '*  the  influence 
which  printing  is  likely  to  have  on  the  future  history  of  the 
world,  has  not  been  examined,  by  philosophers,  with  that  at- 
tention which  the  importance  of  the  subject  deserves."  But 
he  has  only  presented  the  fair  side  of  the  picture.  Experience 
proves,  that  this  precious  art  is  not  devoted  to  laudable  pur- 
poses alone;  and  that  in  estimating  its  future  influence  on  hu- 
man happiness,  we  must  take  into  the  account  the  abuses 
to  which  it  is  liable,  as  well  as  the  advantages  which  it  tends 
to  produce. 


END  OF  THE  FIRST  PART. 


ERRATA. 


VOL.  I. 


)Page    47,  line  20,  for  "  serial"  read  aerial. 
74,  3,  for  "  eleven"  read  ten. 

100,  9,  for  "  consigns"  read  assigns. 
140,  12,  for  "  tree"  read  plant. 

200,  5,  for  "  Ki.ahkoth"  read  Klaproth. 

344,  25,  for  "  Sierra  Leona"  read  Sierra  Leone. 

345,  17,  dele  "  Flacourt." 

347,  25,  for  u  George"  read  Giorgi. 

412,  1,  for  "  Vernix"  read  Wenix. 

421,  1,  for  "  Morgan,  of  Great-Britain,"  read  Morgiien,  cf 

Italy. 

VOL.  II. 

Page  *  5,  line  8,  for  "  were"  read  are. 

14,  4,  for  "  Glasgow"  read  Edinburgh. 

31 ,  20,  for  "  was"  read  is. 

51,  11,  dele  "  Casaubon." 

60,  24,  for  "  Danz"  read  Daxtz. 

101,  24,  for  "  part"  read  port. 
175,  32,  for  "  deny"  read  decry. 

218,  1,  for  "  Mouval"  read  Monval. 

288,  last  line,  for  "  corrupt"  read  correct. 

388,  note,  for  "  Ezek.ia;i"  read  Ezekiel. 


Date  Due 

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^«w* 

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